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Definition
| Systematically evaluating information to reach reasonable conclusions. |
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Definition
| A specific prediction of what should be observed if a theory is correct. |
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Definition
| In an experiment, the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter to examine its impact on the dependent variable. |
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Definition
| In an experiment, the variable that is affected by the manipulation of the independent variable. |
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Definition
| Choosing a sample of a population randomly to be sure that the sample represents the population. |
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Definition
| A measure of central tendency that is the arithmetic average of a set of numbers. |
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Definition
| A measure of central tendency that is the most frequent score or value in a set of numbers. |
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Term
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Definition
| A measure of central tendency that is the value in a set of numbers that falls exactly halfway between the highest and lowest values. |
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Term
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Definition
| The basic units of the nervous system; cells that receive, integrate, and transmit information in the nervous system. They operate through electrical impulses. |
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Term
| afferent (sensory) neurons |
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Definition
| Detect information from the physical world and pass it to the brain. |
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Definition
| Direct muscles to contract or relax, thereby producing movement. |
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Definition
| A long, narrow outgrowth of a neuron by which information is transmitted to other neurons. |
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Term
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Definition
| Branchlike extensions of the neuron that detect information from other neurons. |
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Definition
| Site, in the neuron, where information from thousands of other neurons is collected and integrated. |
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Term
| sympathetic nervous system |
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Definition
| Prepares the body for action. |
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Term
| parasympathetic nervous system |
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Definition
| Returns the body to its resting state. |
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Term
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Definition
| Chemical substances released from endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to targeted tissues; the tissues are subsequently influenced by them. |
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Definition
| Detection of external stimuli, response to the stimuli, and the transmission of these responses to the brain. |
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Term
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Definition
| The processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory signals; it results in an internal representation of the stimulus. |
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Term
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Definition
| A process by which sensory receptors produce neural impulses when they receive physical or chemical stimulation. |
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Term
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Definition
| The minimum intensity of stimulation that must occur before you experience a sensation. |
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Term
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Definition
| The just noticeable difference between two stimuli. |
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Term
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Definition
| When damage happens to the haptic receptors (found in skin, muscles, membranes around joints and bones, organs, etc.) an electrical signal is sent to the brain that conveys discomfort. |
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Term
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Definition
| Describes how perceived features of a visual scene are grouped into organized wholes. |
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Term
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Definition
| The closer two figures are to each other, the more likely we are to group them and see them as a part of the same object. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to group figures according to how closely they resemble each other. |
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Term
| good continuation (Gestalt) |
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Definition
| The tendency to interpret intersecting lines as continuous. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to complete figures even when gaps exist. |
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Term
| illusory contours (Gestalt) |
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Definition
| The tendency to perceive contours even whey they do not exist. |
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Term
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Definition
| A hierarchal model of pattern recognition in which data are relayed from one level of mental processing to the next, always moving to a higher level of processing. Example: If an object is made of fabric, has sleeves, a collar, and buttons down the front, then it must be a shirt. |
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Term
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Definition
| A hierarchal model of pattern recognition in which information at higher levels of mental processing can also influence lower, earlier levels in the processing hierarchy. Example: If you look at a chair, you know that it must have legs, a seat, and a back to comprise a chair. |
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Definition
| A disorder characterized by an inability to sleep. |
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Definition
| A disorder in which a person, while asleep, stops breathing because his/her throat closes; the condition results in frequent awakenings during the night. |
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Term
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Definition
| A sleep disorder in which people experience excessive sleepiness during normal waking hours, sometimes going limp and collapsing with sleep. |
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Term
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Definition
| Mind-altering substances that change the brain's neurochemistry by activating neurotransmitter systems. |
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Term
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Definition
| The most widely-used drug in the world that can have the effects of stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen. |
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Term
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Definition
| A psychoactive drug that increased the concentration of dopamine in the neural synapse. It causes its users to feel alert, energetic, sociable, and wide awake. |
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Term
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Definition
| Psychoactive drugs that block the reuptake of dopamine and increase its release. It is easy to become addicted to these, and with long term use, brain structures become damages. Negative side effects include insomnia, anxiety, and heart, skin, and dental problems. |
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Term
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Definition
| A psychoactive drug that is associated with serotonin release, which may explain its hallucinogenic properties. Users often feel depressed after its effects wear off. Produces similar effects to that of stimulants. Long-term use causes memory problems and a diminished ability to perform complex tasks. |
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Term
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Definition
| Drug use that remains compulsive despite its negative consequences. It consists of physical and psychological factors. |
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Term
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Definition
| When a drug addict fails to use the substance they are addicted to, they experience a physiological and psychological state characterized by feelings of anxiety, tension, and cravings for the addictive substance. |
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Term
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Definition
| A stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place. |
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Term
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Definition
| A stimulus that elicits a response, such as a reflex, without any prior learning. |
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Term
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Definition
| A response to a conditioned stimulus that has been learned. |
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Term
| classical conditioning (Pavolovian) |
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Definition
| A type of learned response; a neutral object comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces that response. |
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Term
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Definition
| A learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future. |
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Term
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Definition
| The gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. |
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Term
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Definition
| A process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus. |
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Term
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Definition
| A process in which a previously extinguished response reemerges after the presentation of the conditioned stimulus. |
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Term
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Definition
| Learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response. |
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Term
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Definition
| A differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus. |
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Term
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Definition
| Thorndike's general theory of learning: Any behavior that leads to a satisfying state of affairs is likely to occur again, and any behavior that leads to an annoying state of affairs is less likely to occur again. |
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Term
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Definition
| The administration of a stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior's being repeated. |
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Term
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Definition
| The removal of a stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior's being repeated. |
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Term
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Definition
| The administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring. |
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Term
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Definition
| The removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring. |
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Term
| Schedules of Reinforcement |
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Definition
| Ratio, interval, fixed, variable |
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Term
| ratio (schedule of reinforcement) |
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Definition
| Based on the number of times the behavior occurs. |
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Term
| interval (schedules of reinforcement) |
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Definition
| Based on a specific unit of time. |
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Term
| fixed (schedules of reinforcement) |
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Definition
| Based on a specific number of occurrences or after a specific period of time. |
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Term
| variable (schedules of reinforcement) |
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Definition
| Based on different rates or different times. |
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Term
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Definition
| The imitation of behavior through observational learning. |
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Term
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Definition
| The processing of information so that it can be stored. |
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Term
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Definition
| The retention of encoded representations over time. |
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Term
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Definition
| The act of recalling or remember stored information when it is needed. |
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Term
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Definition
| Organizing information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to recall items from a list depends on the order of presentation, with items presented early or late in the list remembered better than those in the middle. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cognitive structures that help us perceive, organize, process, and use information. |
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Term
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Definition
| When a person's internal states match during encoding and recall, memory can be enhanced. |
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Term
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Definition
| When prior information inhibits the ability to remember new information. |
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Term
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Definition
| When new information inhibits the ability to remember old information. |
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Term
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Definition
| Step-by-step procedures for solving problems and making decisions. |
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Term
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Definition
| Shortcuts (rules of thumb or guidelines) used to reduce the amount of thinking that is needed to make decisions. |
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Term
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Definition
| Environmental agents that harm an embryo or fetus in utero. |
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Term
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Definition
| A process whereby the synaptic connections in the brain that are used are preserved and those that are not are lost. |
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Term
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Definition
| Time periods when specific skills develop most easily. |
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Term
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Definition
| A strong emotional connection that persists over time and across circumstances. |
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Term
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Definition
| The idea that children go through four stages of development which reflect different ways of thinking about the world. |
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Term
| sensorimotor stage (Piaget) |
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Definition
| Development from birth to 2 years. During this period, a child learns to differentiate self from objects, recognizes himself as an agent of action and begins to act intentionally. Object permanence is also achieved. |
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Term
| preoperational stage (Piaget) |
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Definition
| Development from 2-7 years of age. During this period, a child learns to use language and represent objects by images and words. They still exhibit egocentric thinking and learn to classify objects by a single feature. |
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Term
| concrete operational stage (Piaget) |
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Definition
| Development from 7-12 years of age. During this period, a child can think logically about objects and events and learns conservation of number, mass, and weight. |
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Term
| formal operational stage (Piaget) |
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Definition
| Development from 12-adulthood. At this point, a person can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systematically. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process by which we place new information into an existing schema. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process by which we create a new schema or drastically alter an existing schema to include new information that otherwise would not fit into the schema. |
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Term
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Definition
| States that bodily perception because apparent before the feeling of emotion. |
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Term
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Definition
| States that emotion and physical reactions to stimuli happen together. |
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Term
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Definition
| A state of biological or social deficiency. |
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Term
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Definition
| A psychological state that, by creating arousal, motivates an organism to satisfy a need. |
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Term
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Definition
| A pattern of behavioral, psychological, and physiological responses to events. |
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Term
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Definition
| People try to prevent having an emotional response to a stressor. |
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Term
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Definition
| People take direct steps to confront or minimize a stressor. |
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Term
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Definition
| People's explanations for why events or actions occur. |
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Term
| fundamental attribution error |
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Definition
| In explaining other people's behavior, the tendency to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situational factors. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cognitive schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of information about people based on their membership in certain groups. |
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Term
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Definition
| Negative feelings, opinions, and beliefs associated with a stereotype. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency for people to evaluate favorably and privilege members of the ingroup more than members of the outgroup. |
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Term
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Definition
| Greater familiarity with an item causes people to have more positive attitudes about the item. |
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Term
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Definition
| Influence a person's feelings and behavior at an unconscious level. |
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Term
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Definition
| A person can report these. |
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Term
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Definition
| An uncomfortable mental state due to a contradiction between two attitudes or between an attitude and behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| The active and conscious effort to change an attitude through the transmission of a message. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency for people to work less hard in a group than when working alone. |
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Term
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Definition
| When the mere presence of others enhances performance. |
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Term
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Definition
| A state of reduced individuality, self-awareness, and attention to personal standards. |
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Term
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Definition
| The altering of one's behaviors and opinions to match those of other people or to match other people's expectations. |
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Term
| door-in-the-face technique |
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Definition
| People are more likely to agree to a small request after they have refused a large request. |
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Term
| foot-in-the-door technique |
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Definition
| If people agree to a small request, they become more likely to comply with a large and undesirable one. |
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Term
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Definition
| The characteristic thoughts, emotional responses, and behaviors that are relatively stable in an individual over time and across circumstances. |
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Term
| id (psychodynamic theory) |
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Definition
| The component of personality that is completely submerged in the unconscious and operates according to the pleasure principle. |
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Term
| ego (psychodynamic theory) |
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Definition
| The component of personality that tries to satisfy the wishes of the id while being responsive to the dictates of the superego. |
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Term
| superego (psychodynamic theory) |
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Definition
| The internalization of societal and parental standards of conduct. |
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Term
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Definition
| Driven by the libido (energy that promotes pleasure seeking), which seeks pleasure and avoids pain. |
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Term
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Definition
| Operates the ego, which involves rational thought and problem solving. |
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Term
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Definition
| Unconscious mental strategies that the mind uses to protect itself from distress. |
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Term
| external locus of control |
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Definition
| People with this believe rewards, and therefore their personal fates, result from forces beyond their control. |
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Term
| internal locus of control |
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Definition
| People with this believe they bring about their own rewards. |
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Term
| projective personality tests |
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Definition
| These examine unconscious processes by having people interpret ambiguous stimuli, such as a Rorschach inkblot test. |
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Term
| objective personality tests |
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Definition
| These relatively direct assessments of personality are based on information gathered through self-report questionnaires or observer ratings. |
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Term
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Definition
| The sense of self as the object of attention. |
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Term
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Definition
| Interrelated knowledge about the self. |
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Term
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Definition
| The immediate experience of the self. This causes it to vary from situation to situation. |
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Term
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Definition
| The most important elements of a person's self-construal tend to reside within the person. Children are taught to be self-reliant and to pursue personal success, even at the expense of interpersonal relationships. |
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Term
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Definition
| The most important elements of a person's self-construal tend to reside in areas where the person's sense of self is connected with others. The people's self-concepts are determined to a large extent by their social roles and personal relationships. |
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Term
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Definition
| A diagnostic tool that proposes that a disorder may develop when an underlying vulnerability is coupled with a precipitating event. |
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Term
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Definition
| An exaggerated fear of a specific object or situation out of proportion to the feared object or situation. |
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Term
| generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) |
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Definition
| A diffuse state of constant anxiety not associated with any specific object or event. |
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Term
| posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) |
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Definition
| A mental disorder that involves frequent nightmares, intrusive thoughts, and flashbacks related to an earlier trauma. |
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Term
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Definition
| An anxiety disorder characterized by sudden, overwhelming attacks of terror. |
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Term
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Definition
| An anxiety disorder marked by a fear of being in situations in which escape may be difficult or impossible. |
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Term
| obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) |
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Definition
| An anxiety disorder characterized by frequent intrusive thoughts and compulsive actions. |
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Term
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Definition
| Severe negative moods or a lack of interest in normally pleasurable activities. |
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Term
| learned helplessness model of depression |
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Definition
| When people feel unable to control events in their lives. |
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Term
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Definition
| False sensory perceptions that are experienced without an external source. |
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Term
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Definition
| False beliefs based on incorrect inferences about reality. |
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Term
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Definition
| A psychological disorder characterized by a split between thought and emotion; it involves alterations in thoughts, perceptions, or consciousness. |
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Term
| antisocial personality disorder (APD) |
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Definition
| Marked by a lack of empathy and remorse. People with this were originally described as psychopaths. |
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Term
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Definition
| The goal is to increase the client's awareness of his or her own unconscious psychological processes and how these processes affect daily functioning. |
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Term
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Definition
| Emphasizes personal experience and the individual's belief systems. |
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Term
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Definition
| Treatment based on the premise that behavior is learned and therefore can be unlearned through the use of classical and operant conditioning. |
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Term
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Definition
| Treatment based on the idea that distorted thought produce maladaptive behaviors and emotions; treatment strategies attempt to modify these thought patterns. |
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Term
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Definition
| A therapy that strives to help patients recognize maladaptive thought patterns and replace them with ways of viewing the world that are more in tune with reality. |
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Term
| cognitive-behavioral therapy |
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Definition
| Treatment that incorporates techniques to correct faulty thinking and change maladaptive behaviors. |
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Term
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Definition
| Drugs that affect mental processes. |
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Term
| electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) |
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Definition
| A procedure that involves administering a current to the patient's brain to produce a seizure; it is effective for some cases of severe depression. |
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Term
| transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) |
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Definition
| A current is sent through a wire coil placed over the scalp where a brain area is to be stimulated. This stimulation interrupts neural function in that region. Used mainly to treat severe depression. |
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Term
| deep brain stimulation (DBS) |
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Definition
| An electrical generator is placed just under the skin below the collarbone that sends out continuous stimulation to the implanted electrodes. Used for a variety of medical conditions, such as Parkinson's, severe OCD, and major depression. |
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Term
| systematic desensitization |
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Definition
| A gradual form of exposure therapy that includes repeated exposure to an anxiety-producing stimulus that is a reliable treatment for many phobias. |
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Term
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Definition
| A psychotropic medication used for the treatment of depression. |
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Term
| monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) |
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Definition
| A type of antidepressant. Monoamine oxidase is an enzyme that breaks down serotonin in the synapse, and MAOIs stop this process, allowing more serotonin to be available in the synapse. |
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Term
| tricyclic antidepressants |
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Definition
| Drugs that inhibit the reuptake of certain neurotransmitters, resulting in more of each neurotransmitter being available in the synapse. |
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Term
| selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) |
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Definition
| Drugs that inhibit the reuptake of serotonin but act on other neurotransmitters to a significantly lesser extent. Prozac is a commonly used SSRI because of its low occurrence of negative side effects. |
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Term
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Definition
| A person who typically has a doctoral degree in psychology and works in academic or hospital settings where they conduct research in addition to providing treatment. |
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Term
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Definition
| A person with a medical degree and 3-4 years of extra training in residency. Often work in hospitals or private practices and are the only mental health practitioners legally authorized to prescribe medications. |
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Term
| attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) |
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Definition
| A pattern of hyperactive, inattentive, and impulsive behavior that causes social or academic impairment. |
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Term
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Definition
| A deliberate damaging of the prefrontal cortex of the brain that leaves patients lethargic and emotionally flat, thus easier to manage. It also leaves them disconnected from their social surroundings. This surgical treatment was popular in the late 1940s - early 1950s but has been phased out due to the development of psychotropic drugs. |
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