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Psychology 1001 Final Review
n/a
46
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
06/19/2012

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Term
Thresholds, just noticeable differences
Definition
  • Threshold-> a dividing point between energy levels that do not have a detectable effect
  • Absolute Threshold-> for a specific type of sensory input is the minimum amount of stimulation that an organism can detect
  • Absolute Threshold is the Stimulus Intensity 50% of the time
  • Just Noticeable Difference(JND)->the smallest difference in stimulus intensity that a specific sense can detect
Term
Signal Detection Theory
Definition
  • the detection of stimuli involves decision processesas well as sensory processes which are both influenced by a variety of factors besides stimulus intensity
  • Noise-> background distractions that lower the chance of detection of a stimulus
  • Detectability is measured in terms of probability and depends on decision-making processes as well as sensory processes
Term
What aspects are affected by what aspects of physical stimuli
Definition
  • Light -> form of electromagnetic radiation that travels as a wave at the speed of light
  • Amplitude->affects perception of brightness(height)
  • Wavelength->Affects perception of colour(Distance between peaks)
Term
Part of the Eye and their functions
Definition
  • Two purposes: channel light to the Neural Tissue that recieves it(retina) and house the retina
  • Lens-> Transparent eye structure that focuses the light rays falling on the Retina
  • Nearsightedness->caused by the Retina, close objects are seen clearly, but distant objects appear blurry
  • Farsightedness-> distant objects are seen clearly, close objects appear blurry
  • Pupil-> the opening into the center of the Iris that permits light tp pass into the rear chamber of the eye
  • Iris-> Regulates the amount of light entering the pupil by controlling the size of the pupil
  • Retina-> Neural Tissue lining the inside back surface of the eye; it absorbs light, processes images and sends visual information to the brain
  • Optic Disk-> a hole in the retina where the Optic Nerve Fibres exit the eye
Term
Different Types of Illusions
Definition
  • Visual Illusions-> An inexplicable discrepancy between the appearance of visual stimulus and its physical reality
  • Impossible Figures-> Objects that can be represented in two-dimensional pictures but cannot exist in 3D space
Term
Basic Differences Between Sensation and Perception
Definition
  • sensation-> result of your body's senses sensing something( ex.heat, cold, pain, dryness)
  • perception->how you view your world,what you see and fail to see in it
Term
Theories of Perception
Definition
  • Bottom-up processing-> progresses from individual elements to whole elements
  • Top-down processing-> progresses from the whole to the individual elements
Term
Gestalt Principles
Definition
  • Figure(=Object being looked at; appear closer and stand out) and Ground(=background)
  • Proximity->elements that are close to one another are grouped together
  • Closure-> Viewers Supply Missing Elements to close or complete Familiar figures
  • Similarity->elements that are similar are grouped together
  • Simplicity-> Viewers organize elements in the simplest way possible
  • Continuity-> Viewers  see elements in ways that produce smooth continuation
Term
Perceptual Hypothesis
Definition
  • Distal Stimuli-> Stimuli that lies in the Distance
  • Proximal Stimuli-> the stimulus energies that impinge directly on sensory receptors
  • Perceptual Hypothesis-> an inference about which distal stimuli could be responsible for the proximal stimuli sensed 
  • Our perceptual hypotheses are guided by our experience based expectations
Term
Opponent Processes
Definition
  • Ewald Hering
  • colour vision holds that color perception depends on receptors that make antagonistic response to three pairs of colours
  • red vs green
  • yellow vs blue
  • black vs white
Term
Phi Phenomenon
Definition
  • the illusion of movement created by presenting visual stimuli in rapid succession
Term
Colour: Subtractive vs. Additive
Definition
  • Subtractive:works by removing some wavelength of light, leaving less light than thier originally is
  • Additive: works by superimposing lights, putting more light in the mixture than exists in any one light by itself
Term
Abnormalities
Definition
  • Colour Blindness: Inability to distinguish variety among colours
  • Afterimage:a visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed
Term
Key Brain Structures
Definition
  • Gustatory System-> the sensory system for taste
  • Olfactory system-> the sensory system for smell
  • Taste Buds-> receptive for taste in the mouth
  • Cilia->receptive for smell in the nose
  • Receptive fields for touch-> when touched neurons fire to the brain alerting it
  • Kinesthetic System->monitors the position of various parts of the body
  • Vestibular System-> Responds to gravity and keeps you informed of your body's location in space; provides sense of balance
Term
Types of Visual Cells
Definition
Term
Localization of Sounds
Definition
  • Auditory Localization-> locating the source of a sound in space
  • Loudness and Timing of sounds are most important for finding the source of sound
  • Place Theory-> Perception of Pitch corresponds to the vibration of different plaes along the Basilar Membrane
  • Frequency theory-> Perception of Pitch corresponds to the rate/frequency at which the entire Basilar Membrane Vibrates
  • Volley Principle->Groups of Auditory Nerve Fibers fire Neural Impulses in rapid succession creating Volleys of Impulses
Term
Pain Control
Definition
  • Pain messages are transmitted to the brain via two different pathways that pass through different areas of the thalamus 
  • fast pathway->registers localized pain and relays it to the cortex in a fraction of a second
  • slow pathway->lags a second or two behind the fast pathway
Term
Brain Waves,Different Types of Cognitive Activity,Levels of Consciousness
Definition
  • Electroencephalograph(EEG)-> measures electrical activity in the brain
  • 4 frequency bands:
  • Beta-> 13-24 cps- Normal waking thought, problem solving
  • Alpha->8-12 cps- Deep Relaxation, Blank Mind, Meditation
  • Theta->4-7 cps- Light Sleep
  • Delta->1-3 cps- Deep Sleep
  • Unconscious needs wishes and conflicts influence behaviour and feelings
Term
Stages of Sleep
Definition
  • Stage 1: Brief Transitional stage of Light Sleep; hypnic jerks(muscle contractions) happen in this stage
  • Stage 2: Brief bursts of higher frequency Brain Waves; Respriration rate, heart rate, muscle tension and body temperature begin to decline
  • Stage 3 and 4: Slow wave sleep; high amplitude, low frequency delta waves become prominent in EEG recordings
  • Stage 5: REM sleep(rapid eye movement); high frequency, low amplitude brain waves, and vivid dreaming, deep stage of sleep, muscles become paralyzed
  • REM sleep occurs about 4 times a night
Term
Sleep disorders /deprivation
Definition
  • sleep deprivation impairs reaction time, attention, coordination, decision making etc
  • Insomnia- chronic problems in getting adequate sleep
  • Narcolepsy- disease cuaseing sudden onsets of sleep during waking periods
  • Sleep apnea- frequent reflexive gasping for ait that awakens the person and disrupts sleep
  • Nightmares- Anxiety arousing dreams that lead to awakening, usually during REM sleep
  • Night Terrors- Abrupt awakening from non REM sleep accompanied by intense autonomatic arousal and feeling of Panic
  • Somnambulism- Sleepwalking
Term
Brain Chemicals
Definition
  • Ascending Reticular Activating System- Fibers in Reticular formation that influence sleep and rising from sleep
  • Cutting Fibers= continuous sleep
  • Electric Stimulating Fibers= Awakening
Term
Insomnia
Definition
  • caused by anxiety, tension, emotional problems, health problems
  • Sedatives and sleeping pills are medication for insomnia
  • reduce amount of REM and leave sluggish effect the next day
Term
Dreams
Definition
  • REM dreams: More visual, vivid, story-like dreams
  • Non REM dreams: not as brilliant as REM dreams
  • Lucid Dreaming: People realize they are dreaming in their dream
  • mental thought processes while asleep are close to conscious thought processes
  • most dreams unfold in familiar settings, with familiar characters
  • themes of dreams are common: sex, aggression, misfortune
  • People usually dream about themselves
  • Men and Women have slightly different dreams reflecting their social roles
  • People often dream about what is going on in their lives
  • Dreams are usually waking ideas and emotional worries
  • Thoughts we try to suppress during the day come out in our dreams
  • Dreams can incorporate physical stimuli like having water poured on you being interpreted in the dream as rain, water etc
Term
Theories of Dreaming
Definition
  • Freud theorized dreams are "wish fulfillment"
  • Manifest content: the plot of the dream as a surface level
  • Latent content: disguised and hidden meaning of the events in the plot
  • Rosalind Cartwright theorized dreams are opportunities to work through everyday problems and emotional issues in waking life
  • Hobson and McCarley theorized that dreams are side effects of Neural- Activation Synthesis, downplays the effect of emotions on dreams
Term
Hypnosis
Definition
  • systematic procedure that typically produces a hightened state of suggestability
  • Hypnotic Phenomena:
  • Anesthesia: hypnosis can be used to relieve pain
  • Hallucination: Subjects "see" things that are not there
  • Disinhibition: Subjects do things that they normally would not do
  • Posthypnotic Suggestions: suggestions made during hypnosis effect a subjects later behaiour
Term
Theories of Hypnosis
Definition
  • Hypnosis as Role Playing: people are just role-playing what is socially acceptable to be hypnotized
  • Dissociation: Splitting off of Mental processes into two seperate, simultaneous streams of awareness
  • Divided consciousness: is a normal experience such as driving a car, but you dont remember specific things about it. You just do it.
Term
Synesthesia
Definition
  • a condition in which one type of stimulation evokes the sensation of another, as when the hearing of a sound produces the visualization of a colour
Term
Drugs
Definition
  • Psychoactive Drugs- Chemical substances that modify mental, emotional, or behavioural functioning
  • Narcotics/Opiates: drugs derived from Opium that relieve pain( heroine, morphine)
  • Sedatives: sleep inducing drugs that decrease Central Nervous System Activation and Behavioural Activity( sleeping pills, barbiturates)
  • Stimulants: drugs that increase Central Nervous system activation and Behavioural Activity(Caffeine, Nicotine, Cocaine, Amphetamines)
  • Hallucinogens: Drugs that have powerful effect upon mental and emotional functioning, causing distortions in sensory and perceptual experiences(LSD,Shrooms)
  • Cannabis: hemp plant from which marijuana, hashish and THC are derived
  • Alcohol: beverages containing ethyl alcohol
  • MDMA: compound drug related to both Amphetamines and hallucinogens
Term
Classical Conditioning
Definition
  • type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus
  • Conditioned fears: ex. fears of bridges
  • Emotional responses: ex. smell reminding you of someone
  • physical responses: ex. sexual arousal, drug tolerance
  • Basic Processes:
  • Acquisition: initial stage of learning something
  • Extinction: the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency
  • Spontaneous recovery:reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of no exposure to the conditioned stimulus
  • Stimulus generalization: occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimulus that are similar to the original stimulus
  • Stimulus Discrimination:occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to a new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus
  • Higher order conditioning: a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus
Term
Operant Conditioning
Definition
  • a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences
  • Reinforcement: occurs when an event following a response increases the organisms tendency to make that response
Term
Behavioural Modification
Definition
  • Instinctive Drift: when an animal's innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning processes
  • Taste Aversions: discovered link between taste and smell and nausea over a long period of time, but not other senses
  • Latent learning: learning that is not apperent from behaviour when it first occurs
  • Observational learning: when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others who are called models
  • 4 processes in Observational Learning: Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation

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Term
Attention, Filtering
Definition
  • Attention: focusing awareness on a narrowed range of Stimuli or events
  • Focusing your attention in 2 or more places at once causes a large reduction in memory performance and motor performance
Term
Depth of Processing
Definition
  • Structural Encoding= Shallow Processing: Emphasizes the Physical Structure of the Stimulus
  • Phonetic Encoding= Intermediate Processing: Emphasizes what a word sounds like
  • Semantic Encoding= Deep Processing: emphasizes the meaning of Verbal Input
  • Levels of processing theory: Proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer lasting memory codes
Term
STM, Working Memory
Definition
  • Short Term Memory (STM): a limited capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for about 20 seconds
  • Model of "working memory" of short term memory:
  • Phonological loop: facilitates the acquisition of language
  • Visuospatial sketchpad: permits people to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images
  • Central execution system: controls deploying, switching, and dividing attention
  • Episodic Buffer: temporary Limited capacity storage for integrating working memory to long term memory
Term
How Memory is Represented
Definition
  • Long term memory(LTM): an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time
  • Flashbulb memories: Usually Vivid and detailed Recollections of Momentous events; often innacurate memories
  • Conceptual Hierarchy: a multilevel Classification system based on common properties among items
  • Schema: an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event
  • Semantic network: consists of Nodes Representing Concepts, Joined together by pathways that Link related concepts
  • Parallel Distributed Processing Models (PDP): cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks
Term
Memory Retrieval
Definition
  • Tip of the tongue Phenomenon: the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it is just out of reach
  • Misinformation Effect: Occurs when Participants recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading post-event information
  • Imagination Inflation: a few moments of belief that a person has had an experience they havent allows them to make up details that havent occured
Term
Memory Strategies
Definition
  • Source monitoring: Involves making attributions about the origin of memories
  • Source monitoring error: occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source
  • Reality monitoring: process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources(one's perception of actual events) or internal sources(one's thoughts and imaginations)
Term
Forgetting Memories
Definition
  • Retention: refers to the proportion of material remembered
  • Recall: measures of retention requires subjects to reproduce information from an array of options
  • Relearning: measure of retention requires a subject to memorize information a second time to determine how much time or how many practice trials are saved by having learned it before
  • why we forget: Ineffective encoding, decay, interference, retrieval failure, motivated forgetting
Term
Interference
Definition
  • Interference Theory: people forget information because of competition from other material
  • Retroactive Interference: occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information
  • Proactive Interference: occurs when previously learned information interfers with the retention of new information
Term
Language
Definition
  • Phonemes: smallest speech units in a language that can be distinguished perceptually (sounds)
  • Morphemes: smallest units of meaning in a language. (words)
  • Semantics: concerned with understanding the meaning of words and word combinations(meaning)
  • Syntax: system of rules that specify how words can be arranged into sentences 
Term
Language Development
Definition
  • 1-3 months old= learning Phonemes/Sounds
  • 4-8 month old= learning Morphemes/Words
  • 8 months old= Learning Semantics/meanings
  • Combining words= 2 years old
  • Bilingualism: learning more than one language
Term
Mindsets and Biases
Definition
Term
Decision strategies
Definition
Term
Frame of Reference
Definition
Term
Cognitive Styles
Definition
Term
Confidence
Definition
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