Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| nervous system and skin / hair / nails |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| connective tissue / muscle / vasculature |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
day 18, midline of ectoderm differentiates into
neural plate made of neuroepithelium cells (future CNS / PNS) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
day 21, neural fold becomes neural tube (future CNS)
• neural crest migrates away from tube (future PNS) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| cervical / medulla closure |
|
|
Term
| cervical / medulla closure |
|
Definition
| “oldest” part of the nervous system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
closure of rostral neurophore
brain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
closure of caudal neurophore
spinal cord (lumbar 1 & 2) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| hollow part of neural tube (“lumen”) |
|
Definition
| becomes ventricles and neural canal |
|
|
Term
| • problems with closure of neural tube |
|
Definition
• rostral – anencephaly
• caudal - spinal bifida
• cervical/medulla - death |
|
|
Term
| rostral (“brain”) end of tube |
|
Definition
| has 3 chambers (future ventricles) |
|
|
Term
| surrounding tissue in neural tube becomes |
|
Definition
forebrain / midbrain / hindbrain
forebrain > telencephalon / lateral ventricles & diencephalon / 3rd ventricle
• midbrain > mesencephalon / cerebral aqueduct
• hindbrain > metencephalon & myelencephalon |
|
|
Term
| caudal end of tube becomes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
birth of neurons
neurons aren't born until the neural tube closes, stops at about 4 months |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| founder cells line the inside of the neural tube and become neurons & glia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| become new germinal zone, forming small interneurons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| aggregation determined by |
|
Definition
timing, genetics,
and electrochemical signals |
|
|
Term
| radial glial cells later become |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| _____ generally precede ____ |
|
Definition
| axons, dendrites (act before react) |
|
|
Term
| Pruning occurs during brain development because |
|
Definition
| too many synapses are made at first |
|
|
Term
| Parcellation in development |
|
Definition
• early in development, there is a multiple, overlapping
innervation pattern
• stimulation of a young baby will result in a “mass action” type
of response
• as the nervous system develops, it becomes more
compartmentalized, allowing for fractionation of responses |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
rough index of maturation
• begins following proliferation (axon doesn’t
have to be fully developed for myelin to start
growing)
• starts at axon hillock
• CNS - oligodendrocytes
• PNS - Schwann cells
• motor cells first
• intracortical connections last
• inputs first / outputs last |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
e irreversible “decision-points” when neurons become
committed to one or another pathway of differentiation |
|
|
Term
| effects of sexual hormones |
|
Definition
• early - organizational
• adolescence - activational |
|
|
Term
| brain does not develop homogeneously |
|
Definition
• large neurons before small neurons
• neurons before glia
• motor neurons (ventral neural tube) before
sensory neurons (dorsal neural tube)
• skeletal motor neurons are the first to
develop |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
change in the amount of NT released by the
presynaptic neuron in response to an AP (“functional”) |
|
|
Term
| facilitation, augmentation, and potentiation all forms of |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depression ___ NT release |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
physical changes, including growth of new
synapses etc (“structural”) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
3 layers
hippocampal formation / ventral & medial cortex
closest to brainstem |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
3-4 layers
hippocampal formation / amygdala |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
6 layers
more layers > more complex processing
cytoarchitectonically distinct regions
functionally distinct |
|
|
Term
| Across all neocortical areas |
|
Definition
• each layer has a primary source of inputs & primary output
targets
• columnar organization (connections)
• lateral connections
• between local columns and other cortical areas |
|
|
Term
| Primary sensory and motor = ___ of the motor cortex |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
most of the cortical surface
responsible for cognition
attend to stimuli (external or internal)
identify its significance
make appropriate response |
|
|
Term
| Primary sensory and motor |
|
Definition
encoding sensory inputs
producing movements |
|
|
Term
| Each lobe's association cortex has a ____ but ____ set of inputs |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
hippocampus
basal ganglia
cerebellum
other cortical areas |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| attending to stimuli (external or internal) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
deficits in reaching when guided by
vision |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
deficits in voluntary eye
movements necessary for scanning a visual scene
Simultanagnosia – cannot perceive individual
elements of a visual scene as a “whole” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| inferior portion of temporal lobe |
|
Definition
| responsible for “recognition” |
|
|
Term
| damage to right temporal usually leads to |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - difficulty with recognizing, identifying and naming categories of objects |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| leads to deficits in attention |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| selecting and planning appropriate behavioral responses |
|
|
Term
| Frontal - bilateral lesions |
|
Definition
| dramatically change a person’s “character” |
|
|
Term
| Stages of language development |
|
Definition
• 6 months - babbling
• 1 year - 1 word (beginning to understand)
• 1.5 years - 30 to 50 words (can’t link together)
• 2 years - 2 words at a 3me (“telegraphic”)
• 2.5 years - 3 or more words together (syntax star3ng)
• 3 years - full sentences (1000+ words)
• 4 years close to adult competence
• average english speaker ~10,000-100,000 everyday words |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| meaning, memories, emotion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
• thoughts are shaped by language
• the language you speak limits your thoughts |
|
|
Term
| _____ comes before _____ in language |
|
Definition
| understanding, production |
|
|
Term
| before any exposure to language |
|
Definition
| larger planum temporale in L hemisphere |
|
|
Term
| What makes language language? |
|
Definition
receiving/comprehension
sending/production |
|
|
Term
| 4 Main Units of a language’s grammar |
|
Definition
1.Phonology
2.Semantics
3.Syntax
4.Pragmatics |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sounds that can be used to produce words in a language |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sounds that are basic building blocks of speech |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Meaning of a word or sentence, which arises from its:
Morphemes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| built of phonemes, smallest unit of meaning in a language |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organization: Rules for combining different types of words in a sentence |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Implied meaning (not necessarily literal/deeper) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| emotional content, musical intonation of speech |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| normal rate, rhythm and melody |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| loss of expression or comprehension of language |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| difficulty in finding the appropriate word to describe something |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| impaired ability to program motor mouth movements of speech sounds |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Broca's aphasia, difficulty in properly employing grammatical devices |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| most typical example (dog/cat) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| better or worse example (dog/ cat = high, snake = low) |
|
|
Term
| 2 main language regions in the brain |
|
Definition
| 1 in frontal association cortex, 1 in temporal association cortex |
|
|
Term
| Lesion to Wernicke's area |
|
Definition
| problems with comprehension/understanding |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| problems with production of language |
|
|
Term
| Wernicke-Geschwind model of language |
|
Definition
| see a word and name it, mostly L hemisphere, R deals mostly with prosody |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Broca's, Wernicke's, conduction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| motor disruption, ventral caudal frontal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sensory disruption, dorsal anterior temporal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| disconnection of motor and sensory areas (arcuate fasciculus), may understand but can't repeat |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| different hemispheres control different brain functions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1 hemisphere performs a function better than the other |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| verbal, sequential/temporal/digital, logical/analytic, rational, positive affect |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| visuospatial, simultaneous/spatial, holistic/gestalt, intuitive, negative affect |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
cortical and subcortical connections
largest fiber pathway connecting the hemispheres of the brain
hands and feet are about the only parts of the body not connected by the corpus collosum |
|
|
Term
| agenesis of the corpus collosum |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Major fiber pathways connecting the hemispheres |
|
Definition
corpus callosum
Minor connections: anterior commissure, posterior commissure, hippocampal commissure, massa intermedia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
connection between thalami that bridge the 3rd ventricle
• 15% of the population does not have it |
|
|
Term
| Sex differences in the corpus callosum |
|
Definition
| females have 5-15% more axons and are therefore less lateralized |
|
|
Term
| Left-handed people and the corpus callosum |
|
Definition
| more fibers, less lateralized |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Splitting of the corpus callosum to reduce seizures |
|
|
Term
| Sleep defined by four criteria |
|
Definition
–reduced motor activity
–diminished responses to external stimuli
–stereotyped posture (in humans, lying down
with eyes closed
–relatively ready reversibility |
|
|
Term
| 4 main types of cortical oscillations (highest to lowest frequency and lowest to highest amplitude) |
|
Definition
| beta, alpha, theta, delta |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
frequency range from 12 to 60 hertz
amplitude of about 30 microvolts
awake, alert, and actively processing information |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
frequency range from 8 to 12 hz
amplitude of 30 to 50 uV
awake but eyes closed, relaxing or meditating |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
frequency range from 3-4 to 7-8 Hz
amplitude of 50-100 uV
sleep (also memory, emotions, and activity in the limbic system) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
range from .5 to 3 or 4 Hz in frequency
100-200 uV in amplitude
"deep" sleep or coma |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Non-REM sleep (stages 1-4)
REM sleep |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a period of desynchronized EEG activity during sleep, at which time dreaming, REM and muscular paralysis occur |
|
|
Term
| Compared with wakefulness and with REM sleep, non-REM sleep is characterized by an EEG wave with _______ amplitude and ______ frequency |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
non-REM sleep begins when you first lie down and close your eyes
– After a few sudden, sharp muscle contractions in the legs, the
muscles relax
– Rapid beta waves are replaced by the slower alpha waves
– Soon, the (even slower) theta waves begin to emerge
Stage 1 sleep generally lasts 3 to 12 minutes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
This is a stage of light sleep in which the frequency of the EEG trace
decreases further while its amplitude increases
– The theta waves characteristic of Stage 2 sleep are interrupted by
occasional series of high-frequency waves known as sleep spindles
lasting 1 to 2 seconds
• generated by interactions between thalamic and cortical neurons
• also, K-complexes
– People in Stage 2 sleep are unlikely to react to a light or a noise,
unless it is extremely bright or loud
• Still possible to awaken
– because people go through Stage 2 sleep several times during the
cycles in a night, this is the stage in which adults spend the greatest
proportion of their sleep (nearly 50% of the total time) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
marks the passage from moderately to truly deep sleep
– delta waves appear and soon account for nearly half of
the waves in the EEG trace
• Sleep spindles and K-complexes still occur, but less often
than in Stage 2
– Stage 3 lasts about 10 minutes during the first sleep cycle
of the night
• accounts for only about 7% of a total night’s sleep
– During Stage 3, the muscles still have some tonus
– Sleepers show very little response to external stimuli unless
they are very strong or have a special personal meaning
someone calls your name, baby crying |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
– Deepest stage (sleep the most soundly)
– EEG trace is dominated by delta waves
• overall neuronal activity is at its lowest
– brain’s temperature is also at its lowest
– breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure are all reduced
• under the influence of the parasympathetic nervous system.
– In adults, Stage 4 lasts about 35 to 40 minutes during the first sleep
cycle of the night
• it accounts for 15 to 20% of total sleep time in young adults
– The muscles still have their tonus, and some movements of the arms,
legs, and trunk are possible
– This is the stage of sleep that is most difficult to wake someone up
• This is also the stage of sleep in which children may have episodes of
somnambulism (sleepwalking) and night terrors. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
REM sleep EEG characterized by PGO spikes:
–Bursts of phasic electrical activity originating in the
Pons, followed by activity in the lateral Geniculate
nucleus and Occipital (visual) cortex |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1-2-3-4-3-2-1-REM-1-2-3-4-3-2-1-REM
• Each cycle lasts about 1.5 to 2 hours
• a person thus goes through 4 or 5 of these cycles in one
night’s sleep |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a nucleus situated atop the optic chiasm. It contains a "biological clock" responsible for organizing many of the body's circadian rhythms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a photopigment present in retinal ganglion cells with axons that transmit information to the SCN and thalamus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a gland attached to the dorsal tectum; produces melatonin and plays a role in circadian and seasonal rhythms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Restorative: helps the body recover from all the work it did while an animal was awake
Adaptive: need of animals to protect themselves. In general, animals that serve as food for other animals sleep the least |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
not a disease but a symptom
most important cause of insomnia seems to be over-reliance on sleeping medication |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
affective responses to stimuli (either internal
or external) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
physical activation of a sensory system
detection / experience of an internal or external stimulus
(light striking retina, sound activating receptors in cochlea,
etc) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
assigning a value or meaning to sensations
interpretation / understanding “conscious”
(requires neural processing that occurs only in cortex) |
|
|
Term
| 2 basic / “primitive” emotions |
|
Definition
| “pleasure” and “anxiety”, same symptoms |
|
|
Term
| Negative emotions (fear) ____ attention |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Positive emotions may serve to ________ our thinking and behavior |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Common sense
James – Lange theory
Cannon – Bard theory
Joseph LeDoux’s theory
Cognitive theory |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
your body reacts because you feel
emotions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
you feel emotions after your body
reacts |
|
|
Term
| Facial Feedback hypothesis: |
|
Definition
experience emotions due to position of your facial muscles
smiling makes you feel happier
frowning makes you feel sadder |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the event causes both arousal and
emotion at the same time |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
different emotions rely on different
combinations of body and brain reactions and interpretations |
|
|
Term
| The Schacter – Singer experiment |
|
Definition
Subjects told that they are receiving a vitamin & vision test it’s really epinephrine
Half wait with “manic” confederates > feel happy
Half with “angry” > feel angry
whether told about drug in advance or not, no diff
interpreted arousal AND environment as EMOTION |
|
|
Term
| Cognitive theory of emotion |
|
Definition
your arousal and the context combine to form
emotions |
|
|
Term
| ROLE OF CORTEX in emotion |
|
Definition
different types of cortex mediate different levels of
“conscious” awareness
“conscious” thought / “perception” most likely
requires a cortex |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(“old / primitive”)
deep / close to
brainstem
• all vertebrates (only kind for reptiles)
• 3-4 layers perception of primal / basic emotions
(pleasure / anxiety)
most important (paleo)cortical area for emotional
processing is the cingulate gyrus
• role of paleocortex in the Papez circuit is to interpret level
of bodily arousal as a basic emotion
• quickly tells us if a situation is “good” or “bad”
...so, paleocortex - the primitive cortical structures –
mediates fast, primitive emotions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
• restricted to “higher” animals (more complicated - mammals)
• 6 layers adds more complexity to emotional perception
• responsible for bringing emotion “conscious” to interpret / control
most important neocortical area is PFC (more later)
how “level of bodily arousal” is interpreted by neocortex depends upon:
memories and aspects of immediate environment (context) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
a subcortical structure
• sits at top of brainstem
• “control center of the ANS”
• 2 divisions:
• sympathetic - fight / flight
• parasympathetic - rest / digest
typically controls by orchestrating hormone release
hypothalamic processes all below consciousness
(“subconscious”)
• cortex not required, but connected to neocortex
by way of the paleocortex |
|
|
Term
| Stimulation of lateral hypothalamus |
|
Definition
• evokes a coordinated set of arousal responses
looks like “anger”:
arched, back hair standing up, hissing, increased blood
pressure
activity in LH produces all of these behaviors
associated w/ arousal
• Lesions / inactivation of LH > opposite (placid / calm) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
disconnects cortex from the body but leaves hypothalamus
connected by way of spinal cord |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
produces behavior known as: “Sham” rage
• bodily arousal:
• arched back hair standing up, hissing, increased
blood pressure
• “untargeted” attacks, (bite selves)
• occurs spontaneously or with mild stimulus
(petting)
• no communication between hypothalamus and
cortex
• animal is not consciously aware of the arousal
• no cortex - petting may be sensed by nervous
system, but not “perceived” |
|
|
Term
| Disconnect hypothalamus from body |
|
Definition
• eliminates sham rage: won’t respond to petting
• only responds to strong, painful stimuli = spinal
reflexes
• fractionated, uncoordinated set of arousal
responses
• demonstrates that hypothalamus contains circuits
for:
• coordinated bodily expression of various
emotional behaviors |
|
|
Term
| PREFRONTAL CORTEX (neocortical) 2 major roles |
|
Definition
• determines “appropriateness” of physically expressing level of arousal
• determines “target” of arousal response (directs emotion)
• main role of prefrontal cortex is to inhibit |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
subject has control… electrical
stimulation of certain limbic areas > perception
of “pleasure” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the acquisition of new information |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the storage and retrieval of information |
|
|
Term
| 3 main processes of learning and memory |
|
Definition
Consolidation/encoding
storage
retrieval |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Sensory
Short-term
Long-term |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| auditory sensory register |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an image is formed in the mind |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
amount of information that can be
held in STM is limited |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
information only remains in STM for a
short period of time (seconds to minutes) |
|
|
Term
| “Working memory” components |
|
Definition
“Central executive”
Visual-spatial memory
Auditory memory |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
“phonological loop”
involves repeating information to yourself |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
“visuo-spatial
sketchpad” involves forming mental images. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Prefrontal cortex is
directly connected to sensory areas,
controlling these processes and directing
activity within the brain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Unlimited capacity and duration |
|
|
Term
| Types of Long-Term Memory |
|
Definition
Declarative memory
Procedural memory |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
relational knowledge
–“explicit” - conscious, intentional memory retrieval
–Divided into episodic and semantic memory.
•Episodic = where and when info was learned.
•Semantic = general knowledge |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
skills and actions
–“implicit” – memory can influence behavior without
conscious awareness
• - generally requires several trials to acquire |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
“rote” memorization; also
not the best method |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
focuses on meaning of the
information |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Information that is processed more deeply will be
remembered more easily later on |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Mental framework, or organized pattern of thoughts that
are developed through experience. |
|
|
Term
| The Hippocampus and Learning |
|
Definition
alterations in hippocampal circuitry caused by the firing patterns of
neocortical input may set up an “index” of cortical locations within the
hippocampus (by means of a long-term synaptic change) for the combined
perceptual processes that may make up a given memory
• hippocampal damage disrupts learning, memory formation and
retrieval of recent memories |
|
|
Term
| Possible mechanisms of forgetting |
|
Definition
–Encoding failure
–Decay theory
–Interference
–Motivated forgetting |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
memory loss for events
prior to onset. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
memory loss for
events after onset. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
loss of childhood
memories before the age of 2 or 3 years. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
deposition starts in hippocampus and then
gradually spreads throughout the cortical and
subcortical areas |
|
|
Term
| Alzheimer's Neuropathology |
|
Definition
symptoms are not observed until significant
levels of neuropathology and neurodegeneration have
accumulated |
|
|
Term
| pharmaceutical strategies for controlling AD include: |
|
Definition
• increasing levels of ACh
• blocking NMDA glutamate receptor channels |
|
|
