• repeatedly show stimulus until infant is bored
• then change the stimuli, can they detect minor differences?
• if so, they have formed memory, and can perceive the difference

• show infant sequence of actions
• repeat until child re-enacts sequence
• later, begin sequence, and see if baby completes it

• babies are born as universalists
• means that they can discriminate among sounds in all languages

• as babies age they become language specialists
• can only discriminate sounds of native language

• humans are "set up" to use language
• "entire set of innate mental mechanisms that enable a child to acquire language quickly and efficiently
• best evidence: deaf children collaboratively created a language with grammar
  • in the absence of a well-formulated language, Nicaraguan, deaf children created one

• has to be interaction with other people to learn language
• social support for language
• "motherese"
  • adults know that kids are learning so they slow down what they're saying and simplify it
  • not taught, just know
• necessary for language development

What skills does it take to tell a lie?

• understand that it is possible to mislead people
  • people have different perspectives, some of which can be wrong
• want to tell a lie...why? understanding that you are in trouble
  • knowing right from wrong
• have to be able to create a plausible story
  • imagination

• adults know more than children
  • quantitative difference
  • information processing approach
• the way that children think is different
  • qualitative difference

• believed children's thinking is qualitatively different
• characterized children as "mini scientists"
  • interacts with the environment
  • uses information to revise ways of thinking

sensorimotor:

• birth to 18 months or 2 years
• knowing by sensing and acting

Preoperational:

• approximately 2 to 7 years
• concept formation, symbolic reasoning

Concrete Operational:

• approximately 7 to 11 years
• logical operations on concrete objects and events

Formal Operations:

• beginning at 12 years old and beyond
• abstracts, analogies, metaphors, hypothetical reasoning

• Social relations are central
  • children watch others count, manipulate objects
• highlights role of language
  • guides thought and is necessary for communication
• Zone of proximal development
  • difference between child's activities on his/her own and what can be facilitated with a teacher
  • older kids/teachers help shape thinking of young learners
• child as an "apprentice," rather than isolated mini-scientist

Harlow:

• tested idea that attachment results from the fulfilling of biological needs
• monkeys showed preferences for cloth monkey
  • highlights importance of contact-comfort in attachment

• low control/low warmth
• set no limits, and lack affection
• focus on selves, rather than children
• children may be hostile and destructive

• perceived as more attractive
• considered to be naive, honest, kind
• found innocent more often

• Dispositional: 
  • internal explanations for behavior
    • ability, personality trait
• situational
  • external explanations for behavior
    • task difficulty, luck

• differences in judging own and other's behavior
• "actors" usually attribute own behavior to situation
• "observers" usually attribute actor's behavior to actor's personality

Got A or B? attribute it to...

Got C, D, or F? attribute it to...

dispositional

situational

self-serving bias is...

self-effacing bias in...

not universal

Japanese students

• an unpleasant internal state that results from:
  • inconsistency between two or more attitudes, or
  • between our attitudes and behaviors
• motivated to reduce CD

• students performed boring lab task and were asked to help recruit new students
• asked to tell them it was exciting and enjoyable and most people did this
• paid $20 to lie--> no dissonance
• paid $1 to lie --> lots of dissonance
• can't change past behavior but can change attitude

• Pygmalion in the classroom
  • told some elementary teachers that some students (randomly selected) were "late bloomers"
  • should show a "sport in intellectual skills"
  • teachers treated "late bloomers" differently
    • gave them more time
    • gave them more challenging work
    • noticed and rewarded self-initiated activities
  • at semester's end, students showed larger gain than their peers

• obedience experiment
• results:
  • setup described 40 psychiatrists
    • predicted that NO ONE will go beyond 150 volts
  • actual results:
    • 65% of the subjects shocked the "learner" all the way to 450 volts

• norm of obedience to legitimate authority
• experimenter's self-assurance and acceptance of responsibility
• proximity of experimenter and learner
• absence of model on how to behave
• incremental nature of requests (cognitive dissonance)

• learned that social role of "prison guard" and freedom to act was sufficient to create this terrible situation for prisoners
• the power of the situation was much greater than expected
• rules about ethical treatment of human participants NEED TO BE REVISED

• prosocial behavior that is done with no expectation of reward and may involve the risk of harm to oneself

more immediate compliance

less moral internalization

more aggression

poor relationships (quality of parent-child relationship)

less mental health

higher likelihood of being a victim of physical abuse

• predicted changes in aggression
• examined multiple control variables
• large sample (2,461)

• part of pre-operational thought
• a self-centered view of the world

• egocentrism
• don't understand conservatism (changing the shape or appearance of objects doesn't change their amount, volume, number, or mass)

• 60%-70%
• strong emotional bond between child and caregiver
• associated with responsive care-giving

• attachment studies yield correlational findings
• securely attached infants are much better adjusted at age 2

What would we have to do to PROVE that parenting style causes attachment differences?

• identified irritable infants
  • trained half of the moms to be responsive to baby's signals
  • 6 months later
    • 62% of babies with "trained" mothers were securely attached
    • 22% of other ("control") babies were securely attached

• promotes breast feeding
• parents can respond more quickly, minimizing infant distress
• McKenna argues that co-sleeping helps infants regulate their breathing
• Japan, with highest rates of co-sleeping has lowest rates of SIDS

___ deaths due to Accidental Strangulation or Suffocation in Bed in 2004

___ in 1984

513

103

• moderate-to-high control/high warmth
• accept and encourage growing autonomy of children
• set clear and consistent limits
• try to reason with their children
• give explanations for their rules
• children do well (self-reliant, self-controlled)

Parental control: how restrictive parents are

Parental warmth: amount of affection and approval

• high control/low warmth
• controlling, punitive, and rigid
• little communication with kids
• value strict, unquestioning obedience from their children
• children tend to be withdrawn, fearful and moody

• low control/high warmth
• few or no restraint combined with unconditional love
• little guidance offered to children
• children may be rebellious, aggressive, impulsive

• low control/low warmth
• set no limits, and lack affection
• focus on selves, rather than children
• children may be hostile and destructive

1. Obedience and punishment orientation
   • maximize own pleasure, minimize own pain
2. Self-interested exchanges
   • "bargain" with others to get what you want
3. Interpersonal accord and conformity
   • live up to expectations of important others
4. Law and order morality
   • subjugate personal needs to laws which are necessary for society
   • no real questioning of legitimacy of laws
5. Human-rights and social-welfare morality
   • ethical principles can override respect for laws
   • unfair laws need to be changed

• participant had to choose which line matches and gives answer out loud AFTER confederates respond
• Asch's participants chose incorrectly to conform with the group 37% (on average) of the critical trials

• when judgement was difficult: informational influence
• when judgement was easy: normative influence

promote survival by helping to maintain homeostatic conditions in teh body

Ex. hunger, thirst

motivate animal to avoid/escape/fend off dangers

Ex. fear, anger