Term
|
Definition
| -our awareness of ourselves and our environment |
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Term
| Can we be influenced by things of which we are unaware? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the types of mental processing without awareness we covered? |
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Definition
| -priming, mere-exposure effect, blindsight |
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Term
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Definition
| people respond something faster to something they saw before unconsciously. |
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Term
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Definition
| we tend to like things more if we have encountered them before, even if we do not remember encountering them before. Tendency to like familiar things better than unfamiliar things. |
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Term
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Definition
| occurs in people who have had extensive damage to their occipital lobe (primary visual cortex). They can’t see consciously—their eyes still work. However, they do process visual info unconsciously. Not sure why this happens |
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Term
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Definition
| -periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness; state in which body is less active and less responsive to stimuli but your mind is very active. |
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Term
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Definition
| -the biological clock; regular body rhythms (for example, of tempertature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle. |
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Term
| What is the suprachiasmatic nucleus and where is it located? |
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Definition
| -where the biological clock is located. Light striking the retina causes the suprachiasmatic nucleaus (a tiny neural center in the hypothalamus) to alter the production of biologically active substances, such as melatonin production by the pineal gland |
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Term
| What are some factors involved in a person’s circadian rhythm of alertness and sleepiness? |
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Definition
| ¬-genes, age, time of day, temperature, hormones |
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Term
| *What are the stages of sleep? |
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Definition
| Stage 1 (20 mins)- sensation of falling/floating…Stage 2 (most of time)- sleep spindles…Stage 3 + 4 (30 mins)- large, slow delta waves. An hour after falling asleep, we do 10 mins of REM sleep, where dreaming occurs. Stage 4 and 3 shorten and REM sleep lengthens. |
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Term
| How does the EEG change during the stages of sleep? |
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Definition
| way to measure electrical activity while one is sleeping. Puts electrodes on scalp and measures activiy, produces a wave. |
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Term
| In what order does one progress through the sleep stages during a night’s sleep? |
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Definition
| 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1... Cycle Repeats |
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Term
| *How does this progression change with time spent asleep (from early in the night to morning)? |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| low frequency (3 and 4 together) |
|
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Term
| What happens during stage 4 sleep? |
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Definition
| deepest, temperature and blood pressure and heart rate and breathing are all as low as they can go |
|
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Term
| What happens during REM sleep? |
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Definition
| Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. The dreaming stage. |
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Term
| Why is REM sleep paradoxical? |
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Definition
| Because muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active. We’re paralyzed during REM sleep so we don’t act our our dreams. |
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Term
| What happens when someone goes without sleep? |
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Definition
| your immune system suffers, you are tired etc. don’t really adapt to getting less sleep than we need, more likely to have car accident. 24 hrs without sleep impairs you as being “too drunk to drive” |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Person or animals prevented from entering REM sleep will later enter it faster and spend a longer time there to make up for what they lose…The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation. |
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Term
|
Definition
| parallel with functions of sleep in general, can process info and sort and store memories, particularly for anxiety evoking or strange events. |
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Term
|
Definition
| brain mechanisms underlying dreams…dreams are caused by random bursts of activation in the brain stem (during REM sleep). Brain tries to make sense of things by forming a story around the information. |
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Term
| Know sleep disorders, characteristics of each, when they occur, etc. |
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Definition
| Insomnia, narcolepsy, sleepwalking/talking, night terrors, nightmares |
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Term
|
Definition
| Recurring trouble falling or staying asleep. Temporary and induced by stress. Anxiety and depression can be linked to insomnia. Either can cause the other. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Uncontrollable sleep attacks. Involves periodic overwhelming periods of sleepiness. Often fall asleep. Genetic disorder. Shows up during 15-25. In severe cases, they go directly into REM sleep. Sleep attacks are triggered by emotion—loss of muscle tone “cataplexy” halloucinations. Video: dog falling asleep. Cataplexy: loss of muscle tone |
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Term
|
Definition
| more common in kids. More often boys than girls. More common when kid is really tired. |
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Term
|
Definition
| not associated with negative problems. Coming out of a deeper cycle of sleep. Can occur in stage 4. Not associated with dreaming. |
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Term
|
Definition
| not associated with dreaming. During stage 4 earlier in evening. More common in boys, kids. Don’t remember them the next day. |
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Term
|
Definition
| bad dreams during REM, near morning. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Acting out dreams when a person isn’t paralyzed during REM |
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Term
|
Definition
| A social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur. |
|
|
Term
| What is hypnosis effective for? |
|
Definition
| Pain relief, obesity, quitting habbits |
|
|
Term
| What is hypnosis not effective for? |
|
Definition
| Helping memory, returning to the past, stopping drug addictions |
|
|
Term
| How is hypnosis explained? |
|
Definition
i. Selective attention- relaxing people and distracting them from the pain.
ii. Role theory- works for stage hypnosis. People are playing a role to comply with the demands of the situations. Want to go along with the whole thing to please the audience. Only obey the suggestionsif they think no one’s watching and they don’t want it to reflect how gullible they are |
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Term
| What are psychoactive drugs? |
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Definition
| A chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood. drugs that mess with your brain. Influence it and alter psychological processes. Can alter perception, mood, behavior, cognition. |
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Term
| How do psychoactive drugs generally produce effects in the brain? |
|
Definition
| Psychoactive drugs block or enhance neurotransmitters |
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Term
|
Definition
| facilitates the activity of the neurotransmitter, enhances the effects onto the brain |
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Term
|
Definition
| block or inhibit activity of particular neurotransmitter. Most drugs will effect more than one neurotransmitter. |
|
|
Term
| What is physical dependence? |
|
Definition
| Physical dependence is when body needs the drug to function normally. |
|
|
Term
| What is the withdrawal syndrome? |
|
Definition
| undesirable effects from discontinued drug use. Often opposite of the initial effects of the drugs |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| body craves homeostasis, so it gets used to the drug and it takes more of it to get the same effect. |
|
|
Term
| Know the different categories of drugs, their general effects, the examples we covered within each category and their characteristics. |
|
Definition
Depressants- slows CNS. Slow bodily functions. Relaxation, drowsiness. Alcohol, anxiety drugs, biturates, opiates.
Opiates- opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporalily lessening pain and anxiety. Brain stops making endorphins during withdrawl so people experience pain
Stimulants- drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and E) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. Suppress the appetite.causes anxiety, insomnia, heart problems. Caffeine, nicotine.
Hallucinogens-psychedelic drugs such as LSD that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absense of sensory input. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience. |
|
|
Term
| What perspective/sub-area of psychology focuses on learning/conditioning? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How did Pavlov discover classical conditioning? |
|
Definition
| Russian was studying digestive system. Measure salivation dogs produce in response to giving meat powder. Dogs would salivate when the guy walked into the room. |
|
|
Term
| What is classical conditioning? |
|
Definition
| Stimulus…response. when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that already naturally produces a response |
|
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Term
| Know the components of classical conditioning, be able to identify them in examples. |
|
Definition
UCS- unconditioned stimulus- stimulus that naturally produces a reflexes a response without any training (the meat powder)
UCR- unconditioned response- the reflexive response to the unconditioned stimulus, doesn’t require learning or training (salivating to the meat powder)
CS- conditioned stimulus- the stimulus that acquires ability to produce a response after it has been paired with the unconditioned stimulus (bell)
CR- conditioned response- often the same as the unconditional response. But now, it’s a response to the conditioned stimulus. The learned response (salivating to the bell) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| process by which the CS acquires the stimulus to produce the CR. This occurs through pairing US with CS |
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Term
| How can the CS and UCS be paired to optimize acquisition? |
|
Definition
1. Timing- needs to be very close
2. predictive relationship- works best if CS reliably predicts arrival of the US. For that to happen, the CS has to come before the US. For bell has to be presented before the meat powder is presented. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when CS gradually loses its ability to produce CR if its presented without the US. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| when a CR occurs to stimuli that are similar to the original CS (like showing diff furry animals other than the rat to Baby Albert) |
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Term
|
Definition
| when we learn the diff between related or similar stimuli. Ex: similar sounding bell will make dog salivate, but if you keep doing that over and over without showing the meat, they will be able to distinguish the difference. Opposite of stimulus generalization. |
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Term
|
Definition
| biologically predisposed to make particular association between stimuli |
|
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Term
| What is conditioned taste aversion and how is it unique compared to other forms of classical conditioning? |
|
Definition
| not wanting to eat the thing you ate before you got sick…however, there is a time lapse in between. |
|
|
Term
| What are the applications of classical conditioning we covered? |
|
Definition
Diagnosis of Alzheimer’s Disease
CTA and Chemotherapy |
|
|
Term
| How does classical conditioning differ from operant conditioning? What is operant conditioning? |
|
Definition
| Response…stimulus. A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Came up with concept of operant conditioning |
|
|
Term
| What is a Skinner box? (Operant Chamber) |
|
Definition
| -way to study OC. In the boy, can train animals to do certain things. Theres a bar involved that the pigeons, rate, or mice press. Ex: teach the animal to press the bar for food. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Reinforcing gradual steps towards a desire behavior. Like in the skinner box, the closer it gets to the bar, you give it some food and then it learns to hit the bar and get food. |
|
|
Term
| What is meant by successive approximations? |
|
Definition
| gradual steps/improvements |
|
|
Term
| How do biological predispositions affect operant conditioning? |
|
Definition
| our ability to do some things are limited by this. Like you cant condition humans not to sneeze if your nose is tickeld. Hard to condition mothers to ignore babies. |
|
|
Term
| What is stimulus discrimination? |
|
Definition
| involves learning to make a particular response in the presence of one stimulus but not another. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| signal that a behavior will be rewarded or punishmed in the presence of the stimulus; parents served as this for crying kid in video. Phone ringing means pick it up and you’ll be rewarded with conversation. |
|
|
Term
| What is stimulus generalization? |
|
Definition
| when organism learns to make a response in the presence of a stimulus that is similar to but not identical to the original discriminative stimulus. Ex: Parents original stimulus, throwing tantrum in front of grandma may give me attention to. Phone ringing (any tone) will make you pick it up. |
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|
Term
| How is reinforcement defined? |
|
Definition
| used interchangeably with “reward”. Any stimulus that increases the stimulus of the behavior it follows. |
|
|
Term
| What is positive reinforcement? |
|
Definition
| adding something positive as a result of the correct behavior. (rewarding with money, praise etc.) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| taking away something negative as a result of the correct behavior being performed. Removal of unpleasant stimuli as a result of correct behavior. Gets rid of unpleasant stimulus. Way to avoid a negative consequence(turning off alarm clock to shut off annoying noise, taking a drug to remove pain) |
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Term
|
Definition
| innately reinforcing because fulfill biological need. Sleeping, eating. |
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Term
|
Definition
| not innate. reinforcing through association with primary reinforcers. (money) |
|
|
Term
| What happens if reinforcement or punishment is delayed? |
|
Definition
| reinforcement is more powerful if it occurs right after the behavior. |
|
|
Term
| Know the different schedules of reinforcement – which produce high rates of response? |
|
Definition
| Continuous reinforcement, partial reinforcement. Fixed |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| produces faster learning, but learning goes away faster if removed |
|
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Term
|
Definition
schedules where behavior is not reinforced some or part of the time.'
FR- fixed number (every 5th time animal presses bar, gets food)
VR- changing number (ex: rat is on schedule of 7, so they can press the bar 5 or 9 or 6, has to be 7 on average. Slot machines.)
FI- fixed time (First correct response after a certain number of time has passed is reinforced. Ex: rat in box, on fixed-int sched of 5 minutes. First time they press bar after 5 mins, they’ll get a treat. Mail comes in at 1pm every day, first time you check it after 1, youll be rewarded with mail.)
VI – changing time (Given for the first response after a varying amount of time is reinforced.) |
|
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Term
| *How is a response extinguished? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the partial-reinforcement extinction effect? |
|
Definition
| It's when an organism is not used to receiving reinforcement on a schedule so it makes it harder to extinguish the organism because it is not used to constant reinforcement |
|
|
Term
| What is punishment? What are the two types? * the differences among positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment. |
|
Definition
| An event that decreases the behavior that it follows. Positive punishment and negative punishment. |
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Term
|
Definition
| when you add something negative as a result of the incorrect response or behavior. Ex: spanking to add pain, giving a ticket for speeding. |
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Term
|
Definition
| taking away something positive. Ex: taking away video game, or taking away car privileges. |
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Term
| What are some problems with punishment? |
|
Definition
| pain and fear can become associated with the punisher. |
|
|
Term
| What is learned helplessness? |
|
Definition
| when we give up on efforts to control our environment because our previous efforts made .no difference in what happened to us. Giving up. |
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|
Term
| What is observational learning? |
|
Definition
| learning by watching others. This is a problem for behaviorists because theres no obvious reinforcement involved. Humans learn a lot through observation, some animals do too. |
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Term
| What did Bandura’s classic study demonstrate? |
|
Definition
| Observational learning… had kids watch a video of an adult beating up a bobo doll. Adult said certain things and used particular instruments to beat it up. Then depending on what the kids saw as results for the adults, the kids beat up bobo. Example of observing and repeating the task. We tend to experience consequences seo |
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|
Term
| What is vicarious conditioning? |
|
Definition
| when we secondariliy experience consequences of someone else’s behavior. Like happy you’re your favorite sports teams wins or sad when it loses. |
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Term
| What does the research indicate regarding the influence of media violence on behavior? |
|
Definition
| experiemental and correlational studies indicate that these have an impact on behavior and attitudes. Media violence is one cause of aggressive, violent behavior. |
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Term
|
Definition
| the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information. Mental retention of info over time |
|
|
Term
| What basic processes are involved? |
|
Definition
| Encoding, storage, retrieval |
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Term
| How does maintenance rehearsal differ from elaborative rehearsal? |
|
Definition
Maitenance: surface processing. Like remember a grocery list. Doesn’t form long lasting memories.
Elaborative: processing info according to its meaning. |
|
|
Term
| What are the primacy and recency effects? |
|
Definition
| Primacy is better memory for things at beginning of a list, and recency is better memory for things at the end of a list. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| processing information according to it’s meaning (definitions) |
|
|
Term
| The self-reference effect? |
|
Definition
| taking information and applying it to your own experience |
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Term
|
Definition
| cramming before a test does not facilitate memory of this information. Will remember more learning it over time as opposed to in a short amount of time |
|
|
Term
| What are the three stages of memory processing? Know characteristics of each. |
|
Definition
| Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory |
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Term
|
Definition
| have to perceive something in order to remember it. Lasts for 2 seconds. (hitting hand or swinging flashlight around). |
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Term
|
Definition
responsible for further anaylsis of sensory memories. (if important enough)
1. Working memory- aspect, mental work bench…allows us to think about stuff, hold things in memory and manipulate them. Ex: add 43 + 24 in head.
2. Storage capacity
a. immediate memory span- number of items we can hold in short term memory after one presentation. That # is 7, (+ or – 2) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| mental work bench…allows us to think about stuff, hold things in memory and manipulate them. Ex: add 43 + 24 in head. |
|
|
Term
| What is the immediate memory span? |
|
Definition
| the number of items we can hold in short term memory after one presentation (7 items, + or – 2) |
|
|
Term
What is the capacity and duration of short-term memory? long-term memory?
* |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Know the different types of long-term memory and the characteristics of each.* |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cues work because it seems that our knowledge of the world is arranged in networks; a web of association and things that are more like each other seem to activate one another; context (we remember more when in same env. or context if it’s the same where we first learned it) and internal states can serve retrieval cues to trigger our memory |
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|
Term
| How do recall and recognition differ? How do retrieval cues relate to spreading activation? |
|
Definition
recall- retrieving info without any cues
recognition- retrieving info from memory when aided by cues |
|
|
Term
| How does context- and state-dependent memory differ? |
|
Definition
| déjà-vu – when you have a sense of familiarity but you don’t know why; youre in a situation that seems familiar but you cant remember ever having been there or seen any of this before |
|
|
Term
| What is the mood-congruency effect? |
|
Definition
| when emotional state cues your memories; your mood can serve as a cue – when youre happy you tend to remember more happy events that have occurred in the past, when you are sad and depressed you tend to remember more negative things, sad memories |
|
|
Term
| Why are some reasons for why we forget? |
|
Definition
| Encoding failure – we may forget something because we may have not ever encoded it due to the fact that we weren’t paying attention or didn’t think it was important |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| it did get encoded but we haven’t used it for awhile so it decayed and faded away; if you don’t use that path it could get “grown” over like a path in woods |
|
|
Term
| What is the forgetting curve? What does it show? What does relearning demonstrate about forgetting? |
|
Definition
| german psychologist who experimented on himself; memorized list of nonsense syllables and studied how long it took and how many times hed have to go thru list to remember it all → most forgetting occurred within the first hour of learning the list but after that forgetting leveled off; plotted it out and developed a forgetting curve and it fits with almost all things we learn – maybe we don’t forget within hour but curve is still appropriate for week; forgetting levels off |
|
|
Term
| What is retroactive interference? |
|
Definition
| in this case learning something new interferes with your ability to remember previous information; ex. you took Spanish in high school but in college you learned latin; this is when new interferes with the old |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| old info. interferes with retrieval of new information; friend gets married and you keep referring to her by her old maiden name not new name |
|
|
Term
| For what reasons does forgetting seem to occur in STM? In LTM? |
|
Definition
Forgetting in STM – matter of decay or displacement
Forgetting in LTM – more a matter of interference/ a retrieval failure |
|
|
Term
| What is motivated forgetting? |
|
Definition
| we tend to forget things that embarrass us or are painful; things when we didn’t behave so well; memory can be self censured; you can remember times when people were jerks to you but you might not remember when you were a jerk to others; we remember things to save our self esteem; might remember the As from high school but not so much the bad grades |
|
|
Term
| How is memory constructive? |
|
Definition
| subjective and easily influenced |
|
|
Term
| What are schemas and how do they influence our memories?* |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how reliable is eyewitness testimony? |
|
Definition
| not very, especially in younger children |
|
|
Term
| What is the misinformation effect? |
|
Definition
| showed subjects video of car accident and asked them how fast the cars were going when the “smashed” “hit” “bumped/contacted” each other…and each answer corresponded with the term used. Smashed even yielded broken glass, yet there was actually no broken glass. |
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|
Term
| How are false memories and real memories similar? |
|
Definition
| people are just as confident in them |
|
|
Term
| What are flashbulb memories? Can they also be distorted |
|
Definition
| really vivid memories of some major event- sometimes a world event or the death of a loved one. These can also be incorrect. |
|
|
Term
| What are the biological bases of memory? * |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
How may synapses be involved in memory?
* |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What neurotransmitter plays a large role in memory? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the role of hormones? |
|
Definition
| if youre in a certain emotional/aroused state, that tends to faciliate and enhance memory. Prolonged stress is bad for memory. But a little bit of it is fine. |
|
|
Term
| What is the role of the hippocampus in memory? |
|
Definition
| transfers short term memories into long-term memory (in temporal lobe). Holds memories and without a hippocampus you would have no long-term memories. |
|
|
Term
| What is the role of the Cerebellum? |
|
Definition
| important for implicit memory, procedural, classical conditioning. |
|
|
Term
| What is anterograde amnesia? |
|
Definition
| occurs with damage to hippocampus. Cant form new long term memory. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| loss of memory for events prior to the injury that causes the amnesia. Forgetting the past. Typically regain memories. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| thinking, manipulating and transforming information in memory |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| (Schema) – mental categories of things that share similar properties |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| most typical/representative member of a category. Similar within cultures. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mental shortcuts, rules of thumb. Simplify a lot of information to help us make quick decisions. Educated guesses. (ex: more expensive something is, better quality it is…usually true but not always) |
|
|
Term
| Know the heuristics and cognitive errors we covered, the errors in thinking associated with them, and the differences among them. |
|
Definition
Representativeness heuristic
1. judging if something fits in a particular category
2. judging likelihood by comparing to prototype
3. conjunction fallacy - adding restrictions decreases probability
Availability heuristic
1. judging likelihood by ease of mental examples
2. familiarity
3. recency
4. drama
5. overestimate rare events
6. mood
7. gambler’s fallacy – random events |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pay more attention to the things we already believe or things that support our beliefs, ignore info that negates what we think. It takes less info for form a belief than it does to change it. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| maintaining belief over time even when presented with evidence. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tend to be overconfident in our decisions. Overestimate how accurate our knowledge and beliefs are. |
|
|
Term
| What are the basic characteristics of language? |
|
Definition
| Sybols (letters, words, symbols) Grammar (rules that combine symbols into meaningful forms), Infinite generatively |
|
|
Term
| What is infinite generatively? |
|
Definition
| ability to form endless number of meaningful creative sentences. Creativity. |
|
|
Term
| Know stages of language development over the first couple of years. |
|
Definition
First year: nonsense babbling, can decipher language of family after 9 months, one-word stage
Second year: rapid acceleration, telegraphic speed (2 word sentences), overgeneralization |
|
|
Term
| *How is language acquired? (behaviorist view and biological view, evidence for/against) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the Whorfian hypothesis? |
|
Definition
| Language determines how we think |
|
|
Term
| Linguistic relativity hypothesis? |
|
Definition
| language influences how we think |
|
|
Term
| What is the relationship between thought and language? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| language used to manipulate our thoughts. For instance, “preowned” means “used”used to make the bad seem good. Euphamisms. |
|
|
Term
| What is the masculine generic and why might it be a problem? |
|
Definition
| he, mankind) to refer to both males and females…produces thoughts of males instead of females. Is not gender-free |
|
|
Term
| What are the benefits of bilingualism? |
|
Definition
| Cognitive flexibility – ability to think outside the box |
|
|
Term
| Do animals have language? * |
|
Definition
|
|
