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| The science of behavior and the mind |
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1)a set of questions.
2)a set of theories and procedures for asking and answering questions.
3)a product of history. |
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mind and body as separate (but communicating) entities: Body and soul
Even complex behaviors are mechanical, without involvement of the soul...anything a dog can do is mechanical and does not require soul |
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| all human behavior can be understood as physical (sensory) experiences |
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Human knowledge and thought = result of sensory experiences
law of contiguity/association |
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| nativism...a priori knowledge |
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-some human knowledge = innate (native)
-do not need experience
-a priori knowledge |
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| Reflexology--localization of function |
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-all human behavior = result of complex reflexes in brain
-certain brain regions responsible for certain reflexes
-Localization of function |
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| Evolution: natural selection |
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-human behavior = product of interaction with environment
-natural selection
-humans are part of natural world
-can be studied just like non-humans |
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| Early pre-psychological thought |
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-Human behavior and mental processes are influenced by nature
-Human behavior and mental processes can be studied scientifically |
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| Wundt's first psychology experiment |
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| first psych textbook, first research laboratory...Bessel did research on reaction time... |
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| Early Pre-psychological theories... |
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Dualism
Materialism
Empiricism
Nativism
Reflexology
Evolution/natural selection |
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| Early Psychological Theories |
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Definition
Structuralism-Tichener
Psychoanalysis-Freud
Behaviorism-Watson, Skinner |
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Tichener; introspection!
Discover inner elements of mind (components of mind)
Introspection-
During sensory experience, describe
immediate sensations, images,feelings |
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Freud
-Unconscious processes
-Trained as neurologist
-problems due to traumatic events
pushed out of consciousness and
repressed instincts/desires
-Leads to unconscious conflicts in
mind
-Must probe beneath surface of
consciousness |
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Watson/Skinner
Skinner (1900)
-Overt behavior in humans & animals
-Should not make inferences about internal processes
-Consciousness is private, unobservable
Skinner (1930s)
-Examine overt, observable behaviors
-Do not infer internal processes (cannot be seen)
-Consequences of behavior shape future behavior
-Functional analysis of behavior!! |
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Neural level-(brain as cause)
Genetic level-(genes as cause)
Evolutionary level-(natural selection
as cause) |
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| Explanations that Focus on Environmental Experiences, Knowledge, and Development |
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Definition
Learning level-(individual's prior
experiences with the environment
as cause)
Cognitive Level-(individual's knowledge
or beliefs as cause)
Social Level-(influence of other
people as cause)
Cultural Level-(culture in which the
person develops as cause)
Developmental Level-(age-related
changes as cause) |
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Refers to closeness in space or time
If someone has two events occur one after another, those two events are associated in the person's mind |
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How nervous system produces experience/behavior
Some study neurons/groups of neurons
Some study hormonal/drug impact on brain to alter behavior |
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Modify animal genes
Study genes relating traits
Discover which genes affect certain behaviors |
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Explain why certain universal characteristics came to be through natural selection
Survival or reproductive benefits |
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| Study past behavior/experience to explain new behaviors |
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Cognition information in the mind
Thoughts and beliefs and all forms of memories
Relate behavioral action to cognitions that underlie that action
Interested in basic processes which learned information is stored and organized |
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| Cognitive Versus Learning |
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Learning: Esperience in the environment leads to change in behavior
Cognitive" " " change in knowledge or beliegs, and that change leads to change in behavior |
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Empirical Observation
Inductive Reasoning
Scientific Realism(vs. instrumentalism)
Social Constructivism
Reductionism |
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Observation should serve as the basis for claims.
British empiricists:
-Locke (1632-1704):
-tabula rasa - blank slate
-knowledge originates in sensory experience
-(remember Hobbes’ materialism??)
Observational research vs. experimental research |
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If a situation holds in all observed cases,
then the situation holds in all such cases. |
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The universe can be explained by scientific statements.
Realism
-“things like electrons and magnetic fields actually exist”
!!Instrumentalism!!
-scientific ideas and theories do not necessarily reflect the universe accurately, but that they are useful in explaining the universe
-“it’s useful to think about electrons and magnetic fields but that they may or may not actually exist” |
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| Scientific Theories are shaped by social and political contexts. |
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It is useful to explain observed phenomena at a number of different “levels of analysis”:
population à group à behavior à brain à cell à molecule
-Constitutive: complex phenomena dissected into elementary components
-Explanatory: knowledge of components explains whole |
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Definition
| develop theory>>form hypothesis>>test hypothesis>>refine theory |
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case study;
naturalistic observation;
correlation studies;
descriptive studies |
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•In-depth observation of one individual
•Rich detail
•Less expensive?
•Long-term observation
•But cannot infer causal association among variables of interest
•Also, may not be representative of entire population |
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•Observe humans and/or animals in natural environment
•Participant vs. non-participant
•Structured vs. unstructured
•Behavior is observed, not explained |
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•Association between variables observed formally
»E.g., SAT scores and college GPA
Positive///////
Negative\\\\\\\
Correlation does not imply causation!
Third variable problem Amount of Crime related to number of supermarkets…real cause may be population! |
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| Descriptive Statistics vs. Inferential Statistics |
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Definition
Descriptive-which are used to summarize sets of data
i.e. mean, median, variability,
standard deviation, correlation
coefficient
Inferential Statistics-
Components of statistical significance
-Size of observed effect
-Number of individual subjects or observations in the study(higher=better
-Variability of data in each group |
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Definition
Features of good experiments:
•state a testable hypothesis
•specify results that would confirm/discomfirm hypothesis
•exploratory study
•avoid bias by systematic data collection
•anecdotal evidence – informally collected and reported
- e.g., ask your friends how many violent video games they play, rate them on aggressive tendencies
- usually does not allow for evaluation
- usually involves just a single case or a few cases
•use clearly defined variables
- independent variable
- dependent variable
• operational definition: definition of a variable in terms of how it is measured
- e.g., aggression defined as performance on competitive reaction time test
- e.g., my cat’s love for humans defined as how many times she comes up on my lap
Random Assignment:
•each person has equal chance of ending up in either condition
• before assignment, participants are equivalent
• if only difference between control and experimental groups is experimental manipulation, any measured difference between groups must be due to the manipulation
• double-blind strategy
eliminate confounds (uncontrolled factors that could influence the results):
>> placebo effects (effects caused by expectations or beliefs about treatment)
>> time-of-day effects can control somewhat by counterbalancing
>> practice effects
e.g., IQ test
>> demand characteristics (cues that signal that a particular response is desired by the experimenter)
>> experimenter bias (researcher’s expectations influence results)
•demonstrate good reliability (consistency): if someone else replicated your study, would s/he get similar results?
• demonstrate good validity
>> internal validity: does the experiment measure what it says it measures?
>> external validity: can your results be generalized to the population?
- random sample
- representative sample
- cross-cultural factors
•use appropriate statistical tests to assess “statistical significance” of results
- scientific claims are probabilistic
- what is an acceptable amount of risk?
•avoid report bias
- file drawer problem: disappointing results not reported
- confirmation bias: supporting results recalled more often |
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definition of a variable in terms of how it is measured
e.g., aggression defined as performance on competitive reaction time test
- e.g., my cat’s love for humans defined as how many times she comes up on my lap |
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| does the experiment measure what it says it measures? |
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| can your results be generalized to the population? |
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| disappointing results not reported |
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| supporting results recalled more often |
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| Pros and Cons of Experiments |
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Definition
Pros:
•reliable cause/effect relationships
• control over independent, dependent variables
• control over some confounds
Cons:
•artificial lab setting?
•limited set of variables
•may not be appropriate for some research |
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Definition
•Require informed consent
–Do participants understand risks and benefits of participation?
•Risk/benefit ratio
–Do scientific benefits of study outweigh risks to participants?
•Avoid physical and mental suffering/injury
–Does study minimize physical and psychological harm?
•No expectation of death or disabling injury from experiment |
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Term
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Definition
-“Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male”
-Began in 1932
-400 African American men with syphilis (but weren’t told)
-1943: penicillin accepted as treatment for syphilis
-Study continued for 40 years |
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Definition
1) Respect for Persons
-Autonomy
-Vulnerable populations
-Informed consent
2) Beneficence
-Risk/benefit ratio
3) Justice
-Fairness in distribution; equal
access
-National Institutes of Health (NIH) |
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Definition
Survival of the fittest; mutations
Characteristics/behaviors that promote successful propagation of species will become more common over successive generations |
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Definition
•Evolution is a gradual process
•Think: “revolution” is opposite!
•Mutations: errors during reproduction that alter genetic material
•Often lead to characteristics that do not benefit the survival of the species
•E.g., Alzheimer’s disease, Down Syndrome |
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Definition
study of species-typical behaviors
•Including social behaviors
•Animals and humans
•Regardless of socialization? Regardless of culture? |
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Definition
•William James (1800s)
–What is the purpose of human behavior and thought?
Ultimate vs. Proximate explanations |
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Definition
-What is the role of the behavior in the survival of that species?
-Explain role of behaviors in reproductive fitness |
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–What are the immediate circumstances that bring about the behavior?
–What mechanisms bring about that behavior? |
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Variation due to chance
some mutations are without consequences
others are side effects of selected traits |
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| Vestigial Characteristics |
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Definition
no longer serve original purpose
•E.g., wisdom teeth, tailbone, appendix |
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Definition
| ability to comprehend social situations and behave accordingly |
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Definition
| ability to perceive, express, understand, and manage emotions |
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| Ekman's neuro-cultural theory of emotion |
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Definition
| students from Japan, US watch stressful movie |
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Definition
| surprise, fear, disgust, anger, happiness, sadness |
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| Gender Stereotypes and Emotion |
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Definition
•Blend of anger/fear (i.e., ambiguous emotion; Plant et al., 2000)
à >> more likely to rate angry if male
à >> more likely to rate sad if female
•Even for non-ambiguous emotional expressions!
à >> male anger as more angry than female anger
à >> female sadness as more sad than male sadness
•Cross-cultural differences
–E.g., African-American women display more anger than Asian-American women |
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| culture’s rules for what emotions can be expressed or displayed |
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| we use feedback from others’ emotional expressions to see if what we’re doing is appropriate or acceptable |
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| belief that behavior is controlled only by genes and not affected by the environment |
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investment in offspring by parent that increases offspring’s chances of survival – at the cost of the parent’s ability to invest in other offspring
1.The sex that invests more heavily in its offspring will be choosier about their mates.
2.The sex that invests less heavily in its offspring will compete more vigorously for access to the other sex.
3.Where male paternal investment is roughly equal to that of females, competition will be reduced. |
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Definition
| evolved psychological mechanisms related to sexuality resulting from natural selection |
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Definition
| any similarity that exists because a different species' common ancestry |
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Definition
any similarity that stems not from common ancestry but from convergent evolution
convergent evolution-when different species because of similarity in their habitats or lifestyles independently evolve a common characteristic |
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Definition
• seek mates willing to make long-term commitment
- greater parental investment?
• seek mates able to provide resources for self and offspring
- e.g., economic resources
•more jealous of emotional infidelity in partners
Long-Term Relationships |
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Definition
• seek fertile mates
- waist-to-hip ratio
- prefer attractive, younger mates
• will mate with as many women as possible to maximize chances of spreading genes (due to paternity uncertainty)
•more jealous of sexual infidelity in partners |
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Definition
fighting and threats of fighting among members of the same species
help animals acquire and retain resources needed to survive and reproduce |
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Definition
Altruism
Egoism
Kinship Selection
Nepotism
Reciprocal altruism |
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Definition
| prosocial behavior selflessly motivated to help recipient |
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Definition
| prosocial behavior selfishly motivated to benefit the helper |
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| Kinship Selection (nepotism) |
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Definition
| natural selection results in preferential helping of genetic relatives; preserves fraction of genetic material |
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Definition
in order for altruism to occur, the benefits (even among kin), must outweigh the costs
e.g., more likely to give up life for ten relatives than one |
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| Reciprocity (social exchange) theory |
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Definition
we help others because we expect them to help us in the future
- more likely to help people who are more likely to help others (including us) |
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Definition
| some animals will commit biologically unselfish acts |
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Definition
- goal is to maximize rewards, minimize costs (to self?)
- ultimately what’s in it for me?? |
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Definition
| the mistaken belief that whatever is natural (and particularly whatever is a product of natural selection) is right, good , or moral |
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Definition
| In skin, muscles, joints, organs |
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Definition
Connect neurons (e.g., sensory and motor neurons) in central nervous system (including brain)
e.g., patella reflex |
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| Goal of intracellular communication |
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Definition
| get action potential down length of axon without losing (a) magnitude or (b) speed of signal |
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Definition
| widest part of the neuron. It contains the cell nucleus and other basic machinery common to all bodily cells |
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Definition
| The thin, tubelike extensions of a neuron that typically branch repeatedly near the neuron's cell body and are specialized for receiving signals from other neurons. |
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Definition
| A thin, tubelike extension from a neuron that is specialized to carry neural impulses (action potentials) to other cells |
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Definition
| A swelling at the end of an axon that is designed to release a chemical substance (neurotransmitter) onto another neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell |
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Definition
| a casing of fatty cells wrapped tightly around the axon of some neurons |
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Definition
All-or-none neural impulses
electrical bursts that begin at one end of the axon of a neuron and move along the axon to the other end |
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Term
| Resting membrane potential |
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Definition
-A- can’t cross membrane
-Ion channels closed
-K+, Cl-, and Na+ can’t move across
membrane easily
-Na+/K+ pump:
-3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ in
-More Na+ on outside of cell
-Greater positive charge outside cell
-70mV inside cell (resting membrane potential; polarization |
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Term
| Principles of Action Potential |
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Definition
1. Electrical force (p. 137); electrostatic pressure
- negative charge attracts positive charge
2. Concentration force (p. 137); diffusion
- movement from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration to balance levels of concentration |
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Term
| The Action Potential...Depolarization |
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Definition
1. Electrical event occurs
2. Na+ channels open; Na+ rushes inside cell
-diffusion
-electrostatic pressure
3. Charge inside cell temporarily begins to reverse
4. If “spike” (impulse) reaches threshold (-55mV), then fires action potential
All or none principle
5. Process continues until membrane potential reaches +40mV
depolarization |
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Term
| The Action Potential: Hyperpolarization |
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Definition
1. Na+ channels close
2. K+ channels open; K+ leaks out
- diffusion
- electrostatic pressure
why do K+ channels open later than Na+ channels?
3. Attempt to restore resting membrane potential back to –70mV
4. K+ channels stay open too long; membrane potential goes below –70mV
Hyperpolarization |
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Term
| The Action Potential: Refractory Period |
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Definition
1. Na+, K+ channels can’t be opened
2. Na+/K+ pump pumps Na+ out of cell and K+ into cell
reestablishes initial ion distribution
3. Eventually, resting membrane potential restored
Repolarization |
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Term
| Speed of Action Potential Depends on... |
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Definition
-Diameter of axon
-Myelin sheath |
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Term
| Some drugs act on ion channels |
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Definition
-What would happen if you blocked sodium channels?
E.g., novocaine, lidocaine
-Can inject into specific brain regions to see effect |
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Term
| Synaptic transmission: intercellular communication |
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Definition
when action potential reaches terminal, electrical impulse converted to chemical impulse synaptic transmission:
1. Action potential travels down axon to terminal
2. Synaptic vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane
3. Neurotransmitter released into synaptic cleft
4. Neurotransmitter binds with postsynaptic receptors
5. Ion channels on postsynaptic membrane open |
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Definition
-increases rate of action potentials triggered by postsynaptic cell
-How? Opens Na+ channels
-Depolarizes postsynaptic cell (makes cell less negative inside) |
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Definition
-decreases rate of action potentials triggered by postsynaptic cell
-How? Opens K+ or Cl- channels
-Hyperpolarizes postsynaptic cell (makes cell even more negative inside |
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Term
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Definition
1. Autoreceptors
- negative feedback
2. Enzymatic degradation
3. Synaptic reuptake |
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Term
| mechanisms of drug effects... |
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Definition
-agonistic drugs enhance neurotransmission activity
-antagonistic drugs oppose neurotransmission activity |
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Term
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Definition
*1. Increase synthesis of NT
e.g., L-Dopa
2. Destroy degrading enzymes
*3. Increase NT release at terminal
4. Binds to autoreceptors
*5. Binds to and activates postsynaptic receptors
e.g., nicotine
6. Blocks enzymatic degradation or synaptic reuptake
e.g., SSRIs, cocaine
* = direct |
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Term
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Definition
*1. Decrease synthesis of NT
2. Cause NT to leak from vesicles (destroyed by degrading enzymes)
*3. Blocks release of NT from terminal
4. Activates autoreceptors
*5. Blocks postsynaptic receptor
e.g., neuroleptics (antipsychotics) – Risperdal, Zyprexa, Haldol
*=direct |
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Definition
responds to stressful simulation and helps prepare the body for possible "fight or flight"
-increased heart rate
-release of energy molecules
-increased blood flow
-inhibition of digestive processes |
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Term
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Definition
serves regenerative, growth-promoting, and energy-conserving functions through effects that include the opposites of those just listed for the sympathetic division.
-heart beating slow
-normal digestion
-normal blood flow |
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Term
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Definition
made of three parts...medulla, pons, and midbrain...goes from spinal cord into head
thalamus at top |
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Term
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Definition
piggyback on rear of brainstem
Damage to interferes with a person's ability to produce learned, skilled, well-coordinated movements
(faster movements, like pitching a baseball) |
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Term
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Definition
| similar effect as cerebellum only near thalamus, and deals with slower moving abilties such as walking or reaching out to pick something up. |
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Term
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Definition
| The outermost, evolutionarily newest, and (in humans) by far the largest portion of the brain; it is divisible into two hemispheres (right and left) and each hemisphere is divisible into four lobes--(back to front) the occipital, temporal, parietal, and frontal |
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Definition
| a structure in the limbic system of the brain that is essential for encoding explicit memories for long-term storage |
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Term
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Definition
| a brain structure that is part of the limbic system and is particularly important for evaluating the emotional and motivational significance of stimuli and generating emotional responses |
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Term
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Definition
| a small brain structure lying just below the thalamus connected to the pituitary gland and the limbic system, that is especially important for the regulation of motivation, emotion, and the internal physiological conditions of the body |
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Term
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Definition
| An interconnected set of brain structures that form a circuit around the thalamus and basal ganglia, underneath the cerebral cortex. These structures are especially important for the regulation of emotion and motivation and are involved in the formation of long term memories |
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Term
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Definition
receive signals from sensory nerves and tracts be way of relay nuclei in the thalamus..
areas include:
visual area of the occipital lobe, auditory area in the temporal lobe
somatosensory area in parietal lobe |
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Term
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Definition
sends axons to motor neurons
rear portion of frontal lobe, directly in front of the somatosensory area. |
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Term
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Definition
| receive input from the sensory areas and lower parts of the brain and are involved in the complex processes that we call peception, thought, and decision making. |
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Term
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Definition
Higher-order functions:
-Executive functioning (planning, decision making, problem solving)
-Emotional functioning
-Movement
-Language & speech
-Broca’s area
Damage to frontal lobe (Broca’s area)
Inability to produce speech;
“non-fluent”
Can understand language
Motor difficulties |
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Term
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Definition
| involved in choosing the specific movement or pattern of movements to be made at a given time. |
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Term
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Definition
Vision; ability to recognize visual stimuli
-Agnosia (from Greek “lack of
knowledge”)
Object agnosia |
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Term
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Definition
Hearing: ability to process auditory stimuli
-Memory, learning
-Language & speech
-Wernicke’s area
-Damage to temporal lobe (Wernicke’s
area)
-Inability to comprehend language
-Can speak clearly; “fluent” |
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Term
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Definition
Senses
Touch (e.g., pain, pressure, temperature)
Taste
Some language |
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Term
| motor/somatosensory cortices |
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Definition
motor cortex=front
somatosensory=back
Located between Parietal and frontal lobe...above temporal lobe
Motor deals with movement
somatosensory deals with touch |
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Term
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Definition
Axons of neurons in cortex
Allow hemispheric communication
If sever corpus callosum ( “split brain”), produce functional impairment |
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Definition
(front part of corpus callosum) connects frontal lobes
-Production of speech |
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Definition
(back part of Corpus Callosum) connects occipital lobes
Vision |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Non-verbal, visual, spatial |
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Term
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Definition
Slow wave sleep-Stages 2, 3, and 4
REM Sleep-Rapid eye-movement |
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Term
| EEG (electroencephalogram) |
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Definition
| an amplified recording of the electrical activity of the brain that is picked up by electrodes pasted to the person's skull |
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Definition
| can detect abnormal muscle electrical activity in many diseases and conditions. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Beta--close together, awake, attentive
Alpha--further apart, awake non-attentive
Delta--large waves, stage 4 |
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Term
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Definition
NUmber of hours/day decreases
% REM sleep decreases, but takes a slight jump around 14-45 yrs. old |
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Term
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Definition
Restorative function
-sleep restores your body after activity
while awake
Adaptive Function
(preservation & protection theory) |
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Term
| Preservation and Protection Theory |
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Definition
sleep comes at a time where animals can sleep and be protected and what not...
Large grazing animals--sleep 2-3 hours per day--spend most of their time eating due to low calorie intake from grass
lions and tigers sleep 14-16 hours...need less time to eat |
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Term
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Definition
Body wears out during the day and sleep is necessary to put it back in shape
Muscles are relaxed
Metabolic rate is down
Growth hormone secreted at a higher rate
Sleep deprivation in rats leads to death within three weeks |
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Term
| Brain-Maintenance and Memory-Consolidation Theories of REM sleep |
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Definition
REM sleep provides regular exercise to groups of neurons in the brain. Synapses can degenerate if they go too long without being active, so neural activity may help preserve important circuits
REM sleep helps to conserve knowledge of learned tasks or facts |
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Term
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Definition
Wish-fulfillment
well der...self-explanatory
Activation-synthesis hypothesis
dreams are a random event caused by firing of neurons in the brain. This random firing sends signals to the body's motor systems, but because of a paralysis that occurs during REM sleep, the brain is faced with a paradox. It synthesizes a narrative by drawing on memory systems in an attempt to make sense of what it has experienced. |
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abnormalities in the sleep cycles...amount or quality or timing of sleep(i.e. circadian rhythm)
Sleep apnea=dyssomnia |
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| During sleep occurrences...nightmares, sleep walking, sleep terror |
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Symptoms:
Initial insomnia (can't fall asleep)
Maintenance insomnia (wake up early)
Subjective feeling of insufficient sleep
Etiology:(reasons)
-Unpleasant room temperature
-Excessive noise
-Jet lag
-Stressful life events
-Poor sleep hygiene
Short-term vs. chronic |
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TOO much sleep:
I have hypersomnia...
Urges to sleep during the day...even during important things such as work |
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Symptoms:
-Cataplexy
-Sleep paralysis
-Hypnagogic/hypnopompic hallucinations
Causal mechanism:
-Intrusions of REM sleep into waking
state
-Problems with sleep/wake transition
-Damage to hypothalamus
-Increased levels of orexin
Diagnosis:
-MSLT
Treatment:
-REM suppressants, stimulant
medications |
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Symptoms:
-Stop breathing while sleeping
-Snoring
Etiology:
-Lung disease
-Neuromuscular dysfunction
-Cardiac illness
-Obesity
Treatment:
-Tennis ball
-Tonsillectomy
-CPAP (continuous positive airway
pressure) |
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| not REM bc in REM there is muscle paralysis |
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