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Definition
| experiment that proves that inconsistent cues cause slower reaction. Since we are taught how to read in any color, we focus on that first (tendency to say word and ignore color). |
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Definition
| Sigmund Freud brought significant contributions to the study of psycho-analysis which emphasizes unconscious causes of mental and emotional problems. |
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| Implicit Association Tests show attitudes affect our beliefs even when we consciously believe we do not hold such attitudes. True of many stigmatized groups (age, sex, race: people tend to make a positive association with their in group and a more negative one with their out group.) |
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| Toleman was the first to establish how detailed cognitive processes via observable behavior was not possible; he was the pioneer of cognitive psychology. Established that you could in fact understand cognitive processes by exploring a stimulus-response theory and spacial orientation in rats. If the stimulus theory was correct, then each path would be equally likely to be crossed by the rats, as simple connections int he brain led rats from one map to another in absence of larger spacial image and just had one point of stimulus followed by another. But, if this were not true, then the rats would choose the one closest to the food. He proved that the rats had a larger cognitive "lay of the land" and so did humans. |
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Definition
A form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without obvious reinforcement.
the type of learning that occurs, but you don't really see it (it's not exhibited) until there is some reinforcement that causes you to demonstrate it...we understand more than we let on. that is what Toleman proved!!! |
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| Theory of Environmental Psychology |
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Definition
The study of how our brains have evolved to meet specific environmental challenges faced by our ancestors. emphasis is placed on potential impacts of natural selection and the idea of reproductive success.
A field of psychology that emphasizes and explains human commonalities in cognition, development, emotion, social practices, and other areas of behavior |
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| a brain tries to tell a consistent story, and therefore when there is a separation between recognition of features and emotion that these features bring, the brain draws a novel conclusion (e.g. if recognize face of mother but don't have emotional reaction, therefore he doesn't think it's mom (think it's impostor)--cognitive dissonance)....doesn't with photos or on phone |
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| German psychologist who established the first psychological laboratory (1832-1920). he was the first person to make psychology a science, and he was the first to publish in a journal. His work led to structuralism. |
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Definition
The early psychological approach that emphasized analysis of immediate experience into basic elements. Structuralists hopes to analyze sensations, images, and feelings into basic elements. soon abandoned, in part because of its reliance on introspection.
taking major idea and breaking it down into smaller fragments. |
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Definition
William James (1842-1910); argued that brain and mind are constantly changing. An early psychological approach that emphasized the function or purpose of behavior and conscious. Inspired in part by evolutionary theories of Darwin. did not last long as a distinct school of psychology, but it greatly affected the course of psychological science. (how and why)
more of a general overview of why something happens. |
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Definition
| Psychology is the discipline concerned with behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism's external and internal environment. Psychology's methods and reliance on empirical evidence distinguish it from pseudocience and psychobabble. an intro psych course can correct many misconceptions about human behavior. |
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| Key characteristics: theory -> hypothesis -> predictions with operational definitions -> evidence. Requires researchers to expose their ideas to the possibility of counter-evidence because of falsibility or bias. |
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Definition
| It has to be a representative sample: a group of individuals selected from a population for study which matches the population on important characteristics such as age or sex. Size also matters. Ex: only testing college students is inconclusive b/c not representative sample. |
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Definition
| how two variables are related. Positive Correlation: the higher x is the higher y is. Negative; the higher x is, lower y is. |
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| Coefficient of Correlation |
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Definition
| A measure of correlation that ranges in value from -1 to 1. The coefficient is zero or close to zero when there is no association. -1 is most negative correlation and 1 is most positive correlation. |
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Term
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Definition
Independent: something that the experimenter manipulates
dependent: what will be affected by manipulations.
independent variable affects dependent variable. The control is without the manipulation of independent variable, but same experiment. |
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Term
| How does a researcher design a study to get the most reliable date What are the qualities of a good study. |
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Definition
Double Blind Study: neither experiment nor participator know who is in each group, so no bias.
Qualities of a good study: relevance to hypothesis (does the hypothesis predict in a straightfoward way what should happen on these measures), inter-rater reliability (do different raters who observe the same behavior classify or score it the same way), test-related liability (are the scores or classifications that children receive on the measure stable over time), internal validity (can affects within the experiment be attributed to the variables that the researcher intentionally manipulated), eternal validity (how widely can the finding be generalized to different children, measures, and experimental procedures than the ones in the study). |
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Definition
| Adults are better at distinguishing faces with their in group; out group has negative bias. hypothesis: children's preferences for certain faces are affected by faces in their environment....infants showed no preference; 3 year olds showed preference to their own race or the race they were most exposed to; thus environment does impact how children attend to faces. strength: strong internal validity and inter rater reliability; problems: only looks at Caucasians...so bad external validity. it could be evolutionary because people in out group were a threat b/c competing (????). |
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Definition
looked at 3 months olds in Israel, Ethiopia, and African-Israelis....
result: children in both racially homogenous environments preferred to look at own-faces; children in diverse environment had no such preference. supports kelly et al's conclusions.
implications: exposure to diversity could potentially reduce bias. |
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Term
| Visual preference paradigm |
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Definition
| looking times through to indicate interest/preference..possible precursor to ORE |
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Term
| How to Design an Ethical Study |
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Definition
| informed consent (can quite at any time....can't test really poor subjects while promising a lot of money, e.g...); awareness of risks and benefits (exempt research (won't be in any way risky), minimal risk, and greater risk; stress (must provide services to deal with stress); confidentiality (for at risk groups); can't give award that's bad for you..and can't be so huge that makes it almost impossible to say no to); ethical use of deception (when it won't affect desire to participate); debriefing (important in light of deception; help cope with negative responses) |
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Term
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Definition
| Hock 40: participants to shock a subject and the choice to refuse to; tested obedience; unethical because were told to continue even though in beginning they were told they could stop at anytime. no one ever pressed any switch higher than 45 volts...participants, due to debriefing, were fine after, although many broke down. |
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| Bolte-taylor video-what can you learn from her experience |
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Definition
| hemispheres have different tasks; planning, reflecting, interpretation of experience, and (according to her) sense of self in the left; in the right, spacial/visual, art creation, and appreciation and facial recognition; but both hemispheres frequently cooperate on tasks; the brain always remains somewhat plastic/flexible; her perspective is held by some but it can be viewed as a bit extreme |
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Definition
| divided into central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. |
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Definition
| brain and spinal cord (bridge between brain and peripheral nerves); processes, interprets, stores information; issues orders to muscles, glands, and organs |
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| Peripheral Nervous System |
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Definition
| transmits information to and from the central nervous system; somatic nervous system: controls skeletal muscles; autonomic nervous system: regulates glands, blood vessels, internal organs |
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Term
| Neuron Structure and communication |
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Definition
Structure of a Neuron:
Dendrites: receive information from other neurons and transmit toward the cell body
cell body: keeps the neuron alive and determines whether it will fire
axon: extending fiber that conducts impulses away from the cell body and transmits to other cells
Myelin sheath: a fatty insulation that may surround the axon of a nerve
glia: cells that support, nurture, and insulate neurons, remove debris when neurons die, enhance formation and maintenance of neural connections and modify neuronal functions
- incoming neural impulses are received by the dendrites of a neuron and are trasnmitted to the cell body. outgoing signals pass along the axon to terminal branches.
How Neurons communicate:
- neurons speak to one another i an electrical and chemical language.
-axon terminals release neurotransmitter
-neuro transmitter enters synapse
neurotransmitter binds to the receptors that it fits
-action potential: a brief change in electrical voltage that occurs between the inside and outside of the axon when a neuron is stimulated
-neurotransmitter: chemical released by a transmitting neuron at the synapse and capable of affecting the activity of a receiving neuron |
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Term
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Definition
plasticity: the brain's ability to change and adapt in response to experience, for example, by reorganizing and growing new neural connections
Importance of Experience: early in development overabundance of synapses, many of which will be pruned. experience plays a central role in determining which of the brain's excess synapses will be pruned and which will be mantained |
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Term
| Experience-expectant plasticity |
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Definition
| the process through which the normal wiring of the brain occurs in part as a result of the kinds of general experiences that every human who inhabits any reasonably normal environment will have; accompanied by vulnerability (critical periods; if the expected experience is not available, as in the case of congenital cataracts, development will be impaired |
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Term
| Experience-dependent plasticity |
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Definition
the process through which neural connections are created and reorganized throughout life as a function of an individual's experience.
cabbies in london: larger posterior, smaller anterior hippocampus than controls (so more spacial recognition) |
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Term
Hock 2: More Experience = Bigger Brain
Bennet and Diamond |
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Definition
| Results indicated that the brains of the enriched rats were indeed different form those of the impoverished rats in many ways. the cerebral cortex (part of the brain that responds to experience and is responsible for movement, memory, and sensory input) of the enriched rats were heavier and thicker; greater activity of nervous system enzyme acetylcholinesterace was found in brain tissue; larger neurons (ratio of RNA to DNA (two most important brain chemical for cell growth) was greater in enriched rats. |
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Term
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Definition
chemical substances in the nervous system that are similar in structure and action to opiates; involved in pain reduction, pleasure, and memory
play role in: appetite, mood, learning, memory, limbido, blood pressure.
when stressed or afraid endorphins go up |
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Definition
| chemical substances secreted by glands that affect the functioning of other organs. they are released directly into the blood stream. |
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Term
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Definition
| daily biological rhythms (sleep); secreted by pineal gland |
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Term
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Definition
| secreted by pituitary gland; stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth, facilitates the ejection of milk during nursing, and seems to promote attachment and trust in relationships in both sexes |
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Definition
| produced in adrenal glands and are involved in emotion and stress |
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Definition
| regulate development and functioning of reproductive organs and stimulate the development of male and female sexual characteristics; include androgens, estrogens and progesterones |
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Definition
| the part of the brain at the top of the spinal cord, consisting of the medulla and the pons |
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Definition
| a structure in the brain stem involved in sleeping, waking, and dreaming |
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Term
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Definition
| a structure in the brain stem responsible for certain automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate |
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Term
| Reticular activating system |
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Definition
| a structure in the brain stem that arouses cortex and screens incoming information |
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Term
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Definition
| regulates movement and balance; involved in remembering simple skills and acquired reflexes; plays a part in analyzing sensory information, solving problems, understanding words |
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Definition
| relays sensory messages to the cerebral cortex; includes all sensory messages except that from the olfactory bulb |
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Definition
involved in emotions and drives vital to survival: fear, hunger, thirst, and reproduction
regulates autonomic nervous system |
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Definition
| Small endocrine gland which releases hormones and regulates other endocrine glands |
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Definition
Responsible for arousal, regulation of emotion, initial response to sensory information
plays important role in mediating anxiety and depression, emotional memory |
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Definition
| a group of brain areas involved in emotional reactions and motivated behavior. includes the hypothalamus, the amygdala, and the hippocampus |
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Definition
| involved in the storage of new information in memory; comparing sensory information with what the brain expects about the world; enabling us to form spatial memories for navigating the environment |
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Term
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Definition
| millions of myelinated axons connecting the brain's hemispheres; provides pathway for communication; if surgically severed to treat epilepsy, hemispheres cannot communicate directly |
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Term
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Definition
| the largest brain structure, consisting of the upper part of the brain; divided into two hemispheres, it is in charge of most sensory, motor, and cognitive processes. |
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Term
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Definition
| the two halves of the cerebrum |
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Term
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Definition
| specialization of the two cerebral hemispheres for particular operations |
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Term
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Definition
| ollection of several think layers of cells covering the cerebrum; largely responsible for higher mental functions |
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Term
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Definition
| lobes at the lower back part of the brain's cerebral cortex; they contain areas that receive visual information |
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Term
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Definition
| lobes at the top of the brain's cerebral cortex; they contain areas that receive information on pressure, pain, touch, and temperature |
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Term
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Definition
| lobes at the sides of the brain's cerebral cortex; they contain areas involved in hearing, memory, perception, emotion, and (in the left lobe, typically) language comprehension |
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Term
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Definition
| lobes at the front of the brain's cerebral cortex; they contain areas involved in short term memory, higher order thinking, initiative, social judgement, and (in the left lobe typically) speech production |
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Term
| role of brain hemispheres |
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Definition
| In most people, language is processed mainly in the left hemisphere, which generally if specialized for logical, symbolic, and sequential tasks. the right hemisphere is associated with spatial-visual tasks, facial recognition, and the creation and appreciation of art and music. in most mental activities, however, the two hemispheres cooperate as partners. |
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Term
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Definition
Sperry and Myers: severed the corpus collusum in cats. also cut parts of the nerves leading from the eyes to the brain. normally, each eye transmits messages to both sides of the brain. after this procedure, a cat's left eye sent info only to the left hemisphere and its right eye sent information only to the right hemisphere.
....patients not much affected when brain split for seizure purposes...personalities and intelligence remained in tackt (connections int he undivided deeper part os the breain kept movements and other functions normal...but showed that perception and memory had been effected (when one eye blindfolded for cat and learned something, and then other eye blindfolded, cat acted like never learned trick) |
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Term
| Sex differences (????????????????????????ASK ABOUT AT REVIEW) |
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Definition
frontal lobes and limbic system larger in women; peripheral cortex and amygdala larger in men. women also have folds in the frontal and parietal lobes...but difference doesn't mean much for behavior....
1. MANY SUPPOSED GENDER DIFFERENCES (IN INTUITION, ABILITIES, AND SO FOTH) ARE STEREOTYPES
2. A BRAIN DIFFERENCE DOES NOT NECESSARILY PRODUCE A DIFFERENCE IN BEHAVIOR OR PERFORMANCE
3. SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE BRAIN COULD BE THE RESULT RATHER THAN THE CAUSE OF BEHAVIORAL DIFFERENCES |
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Definition
Gage was railroad construction foreman. an 1848 explosion forced a steel taming rod through his head (left frontal lobe). Changed personality. course and unreliable. lost job. this tells us:
prefrontal cortex associated with more sophisticated social reasoning/aspect of personality. being a moral person may actually have evolutionary benefits....but also could have had change in personality b/c of traumatic event.
some evidence for later recovery?...evidence for plasticity. |
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Term
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Definition
| a biological rhythm with a period of about 24 hours; governed by a biological clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus. the SCN regulates and, in turn, is affected by the hormone malatonin, which is responsive to changes in light and dark and which increases during the dark hours. when a person's normal routine changes, the person may experiance internal desynchronization, in which the usual circadian rhythms are thrown out of phase with one another. the result ay be fatigue, mental inefficiency, and an increased risk of accidents. |
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Term
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Definition
| periods of rapid eye movement (REM) alternate with no-REM sleep in approximately a 90 minute rhythm. Non-REM sleep is divided into four stages on the basis of characteristic brain wave patterns. during REM sleep, the brain is active, and there are other signs of arousal, yet most of the skeletal muscles are limp; vivid dreams are reported most often during REM sleep. some people have had "waking dreams" wen they emerge from REM sleep before the paralysis of that stage has subsided, and occasionally, people have interpreted the resulting hallucinations as real. the purposes of REM are still a mystery. |
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Term
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Definition
| all of the current theories of dreams have some support, and all have weaknesses. most psychologists today accept the notion that dreams are more than incoherent ramblings of the mind, but many psychologists quarrel with psychoanalytic interpretations. some psychologists doubt that people can solve problems during sleep. the activation-synthesis theory does not seem to explain coherent, story-like dreams or non-REM dreams. the cognitive approach is now a leading contender, although some of its specific claims remain to be tested. |
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Term
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Definition
| Freud; holds that they allow us to express forbidden or unrealistic wishes and desires that have been forced into the unconscious part of the mind and disguised as symbolic images. |
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Term
| Problem Solving approach to dreams |
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Definition
| dreams express current concerns and may even help us solve current problems and work through emotional issues, especially during times of crisis |
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Term
| Cognitive Approach to dreams |
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Definition
| dreams are simply a modification of the cognitive activity that goes on when we are awake. the difference is that during sleep we are cut off from sensory input form the world and our bodily movements, so our thoughts tend to be more diffuse and unfocused. |
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Term
| activation-synthesis theory of dreaming |
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Definition
| holds that dreams occur when the cortex tries to make sense of, or interpret, spontaneous neural firing initiated in the pons. the resulting synthesis of these signals with existing knowledge and memories results in dreams. |
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Term
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Definition
| procedure in which the practitioner suggests changes in a subject's sensations, perceptions, thoughts, feelings, or behavior, and the subject tries to comply. although hypnosis has been used successfully for many medical and psychological purposes, there are many misconceptions about what it can do. for example, it can't force people to do things against their will, confer special abilities that are otherwise impossible, increase the accuracy of memory, or produce a literal re-experiencing of long-ago events |
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Term
| Dissociation explanation of hypnosis |
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Definition
| leading explanation of hypnosis that involves dissociation, a splitting of consciousness. in one version of this approach, the split is between a part of consciousness that is hypnotized and a "hidden observer" that watches but does not participate. in another version,t he split is between an executive-control system in the brain and other brain systems responsible for thinking and acting. |
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Term
| Socio-cognitive explanation of hypnosis |
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Definition
| regards hypnosis as a product of normal social and cognitive processes. in this view, hypnosis is a form of role-playing in which the hypnotized person uses active cognitive strategies, including imagination, to comply with the hypnotist's suggestions. the role is so engrossing that the person interpret it as real. socio-cogniive processes can account for the apparent age and past-life "regressions" of people under hypnosis and their reports of alien abductions |
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Term
| States aroused with consciousness-altering drugs |
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Definition
Many drugs suppress REM sleep (make it difficult for people to stop using sleeping pills or alcohol); may affect cognitive processes; addiction difficult to overcome because brain's production of regulating chemicals affected; endorphin system hijacked (many drugs produce endorphins..but body wants to keep stasis so body develops resistance and won't respond as well to endorphins in the future b/c the base rate has changed).
Psychoactive drugs alter cognition and emotion by acting on neurotransmitters in the brain. Most classified as stimulants, depressants, opiates or psychedelics depending on their central nervous system effects and their impact on behavior or mood. some, like marijuana, straddle or fall outside these categories.
when drugs frequently used, some drugs can damage neurons int he brain and impair learning and memory...this may lead to tolerance, in which increasing dosages are needed for the same effect, and withdrawal symptoms if a person tries to quit.
reactions to psychoactive drugs also influenced by user's prior experience with the drug, individual characteristics, environmental setting, and mental set (the person's expectations and motives for taking the drugs...expectations can be even more powerful than the drug itself- think-drink effect. |
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Term
| Use of drugs in medical treatments (??????????) |
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Definition
certain drugs, such as alcohol and marijuana, are also associated with some health benefits when used in moderation.
Hallucinogens: thought of being very medicinal in the 1950s, but many people didn't use them that way.
Griffith gave either placebo or magic mushroom...mushroom people had spiritual experiences...did same test to depressed people...it helped them in small doses (gave them experience of lack of order and control).
bad side effects if don't use it in good way (higher doses=more danger; outside of controlled context can be v. frightening or dangerous; frequent use can cause flashbacks, tolerance addiction, and withdrawal; long term side effects include convulsions, lack of coordination, muscle spasms, and aggressiveness). |
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Term
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Definition
| Sensation begins with the sense receptors, which convert the energy of a stimulus into electrical impulses that travel along nerves to the brain. separate sensations can be accounted for by anatomical codes (as set forth by the doctrine of specific nerve energies) and functional codes in the nervous system. sensory crossover from one modality to another can sometimes occur, and synesthesia, sensation in one modality consistently evokes a sensation in another, but these experiences are rare |
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Term
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Definition
| the smallest quantity of a physical energy that can be reliably detected by an observer |
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Term
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Definition
| the smallest difference in stimulation that can be reliably detected by an observer then two stimuli are compared; also called just noticeable difference (jnd) |
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Term
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Definition
| a psychophysical theory that divides the detection of a sensory signal into a sensory process and a decision process (sensory process depends on the intensity of the stimulus, and decision process is influenced by the observer's response bias), and will very with the person's motivation, alertness, and expectations |
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Term
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Definition
| the absence of normal levels of sensory stimuli |
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Term
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Definition
| the reduction or disappearance of sensory responsiveness when stimulation is unchanging or repetitious. |
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Term
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Definition
attending to the information that's relevant to the question at hand is helpful when there is too much stimuli to process in environment. senses are very powerful, but can be overloaded. learn to attend to what is relevant in environment. some of attunement may be innate (tend to faces more than other stimuli...makes sense b/c in infancy following an adult's cues critical - joint attention)
as grown older, many different cues are used.
EX: police chasing down suspect who claimed not to see policeman beating up innocent man. |
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Term
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Definition
| failure to consciously perceive something you are looking at b/c you are not attending to it. (e.g. if paying close attention to number of passes of balls, may not notice man in gorilla suit) |
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Term
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Definition
| vision is affected by the wavelength, intensity, and complexity of light, which produce the psychological dimension of visual experience - hue, brightness, and saturation. the visual receptors, rods (respond to dim light) and cones (involved in color vision), are located in the retina of the eye (neural tissue aligning back of eyeball's interior). They send signals (via other cells) to the ganglion cells (neurons in the retina of the eye) and ultimately to the optic nerve, which carries visual information to the brain. |
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Term
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Definition
| a process by which visual receptors become maximally sensitized to dim late; occurs in two stages (the cones quickly adapt, but they never become v. sensitive to the dim illumination...the rods adapt more slowly but are ultimately much more sensitive). after the first phase, you can see better but not well, after the second your vision is as good as it will ever get. |
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Term
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Definition
| specific aspects of the visual world, such as lines at various orientations, are detected by these cells in the visual areas of the brain. some of the cells respond maximally to complex patterns. debate about possible existence of specialized "face modules" in the brain. in general, brain must take in fragmentary info about lines, angles, shapes, motion, brightness, texture, and other features of what we see and come up with unified view of the world. |
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Term
| Trichromatic and Opponent-process theories of color vision |
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Definition
| apply to different stages of processing. in the first stage, three types of cones in the retina respond selectively to different wavelengths of light (their interaction is assumed to produce all the different experiences of hue). in the second, opponent-process cells in the retina and the thalamus respond in opposite fashion to short and long wavelengths of light (treats pairs of colors as opposing). |
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Term
| Perception (Gestalt Principles) |
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Definition
| involves the active construction of a model off the world from moment to moment. the Gestalt principles (e.g. figure and ground, proximity, closure, similarity, and continuity) describe visual strategies used by the brain to perceive forms. |
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Term
| Perception (Binocular cues) |
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Definition
| we localize objects in visual space using binocular cues, which include convergence, and retinal disparity. this requires two eyes. |
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Term
| Perception (Monocular cues) |
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Definition
| only need one eye for this; include interposition and linear perspective |
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Term
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Definition
| allow us to perceive objects as stable despite changes in the sensory patterns they produce. (e.g. if look at object from different location). |
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Term
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Definition
| occur when sensory cues are misleading or when we misinterpret cues. |
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Term
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Definition
| affected by intensity, frequency, and complexity of pressure waves in the air or other transmitting substance, corresponding to the experience of loudness, pitch, and timbre in sound. the receptors for hearing are hair cells (topped by cilia) embedded in the basilar membrane, located in the organ of Corti in the interior of the cochlea. these receptors pass signals along to the auditory nerve. the sounds we hear are determined by patterns of hair-cell movement, which produce different neural codes. when we localize sounds, we use as cues subtle differences in how pressure waves reach each of our ears. |
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Term
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Definition
| chemical sense. elevations on the tongue, called papillae, contain many taste buds, which in turn contain the taste receptors. the basic tastes include salty, sour, bitter, sweet, and umami. responses to a particular taste depend in part on genetic differences among individuals; for example, some people are "supers tasters." taste preferences are also affected by culture and learning and by the texture, temperature, and smell of food. |
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Term
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Definition
| the skin senses include touch (pressure), warmth, cold, pain, and variations such as itch and tickle. receptors for some types of itching and a possible receptor for cold may have been discovered. |
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Term
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Definition
| chemical sense; no basic odors have been identified, and up to a thousand different receptor types exist. but researchers have discovered that distinct odors activate unique combinations of receptor types, and they ahve identified some of these combinations. odors also have psychological effects and can affect behavior even when people are unaware of their influence. cultural and individual differences affect people's responses to particular odors. |
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Term
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Definition
| pain has proven to be physiologically complicated, involving the release of several different chemicals and changes in both neurons and glial cells. pain comes in many varieties, and is affected by genetics, expectations, and culture. expectations and placebos affect the subjective experience of pain through their effects on brain activity and endorphin control. |
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Term
| gate control theory of pain |
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Definition
| the experience of pain depends on whether neural impulses get past a "gate" in the spinal cord and reach the brain; in addition, a matrix of neurons int he brain can generate pain even in the absence of signals from sensory neurons. |
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Term
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Definition
| a leading theory of phantom pain holds that it occurs when the brain rewires itself after amputation of a limb or removal of a body organ. |
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Term
| Kinesthesis and Equilibrium |
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Definition
| Kinesthesis tells us where our body parts are located and equilibrium tells us the orientation of the body as a whole. together they provide us with a feeling of physical embodiment. |
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Term
| How can phantom pain be treated (Ramachandra) |
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Definition
| use a mirror box to rewire brain to think that limb is healthy and not full of pain.... |
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Term
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Definition
| kinesthesis; equilibrium (relies primarily on semicircular canals in the inner ear) |
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Term
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Definition
| At age 8, David Eagleman falls of a roof. he remembers every detail quickly; felt time moving slowly. he then experimentally explored the topic (now a neuroscientist at Baylor College of Medicine). He used a device that displaces numbers too quickly for normal perception; had participants jump off a roof; could they read the numbers in a frightening situation? NO! they were not better at the task than when they were not frightened. so how can we explain the feeling that time has slowed?: attending to more details; amount of details registered typically associated with a longer period of time. |
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Term
| Color Perception and Culture |
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Definition
The way we categorize/see color is based on culture. Himba tribe vs. westerners. There were some universals in color sorting (e.g. the color red is very relevant in nature, v. salient, v. meaningful)...but what about color perception. Are people from different cultures creating different categories or perceiving colors differently? Correlation between way we perceive color and way we are taught to describe them (Himba tribe has limited number of color categories; probably reflects what is relevant in nature; could not determine easily difference between green and blue b/c they were in the same color category, but could see difference in two different types of greens that maybe didn't have the same category).
main points:
plasticity (this also seen in case when infant processes color in right side of the brain, but with the learning of language, begins to process it in left side of brain by time he is 3); culture influences thought; assumed hard-wired processes may be contextually influenced; context can influence even on basic/fundamental level (something we take as human universal doesn't look like that on closer perception) |
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Definition
showed classical conditioning in dog. Pavlov trained his dogs to salivate at sound of bell rather than just food. unconditioned stimulus: the food; salivate automatically
conditioned stimulus: bell (when he started to ring a bell just before he gave the food, it started to evoke response to the neutral stimulus of the bell such that eventually the dog gets the unconditioned response to the neutral stimulus) |
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Definition
| the procedure by which a neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar or related response. also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning. many theorists believe that what an animal or person learns in classical conditioning is not just an association between the unconditioned and conditioned stimulus, but also information conveyed by one stimulus about another. indeed, classical conditioning appears to be an evolutionary adaptation that allows an organism to prepare for a biologically important event. considerable evidence exists to show that a neutral stimulus does not become a CS unless it reliably signals or predicts the US. |
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Definition
| the classical-conditioning term for a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in the absence of learning |
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Definition
| the classical-conditioning term for a reflexive response elicited by a stimulus int he absence of learning |
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Definition
| the classical-conditioning term for an initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus |
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Definition
| the classical-conditioning term for a response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus; it occurs after the conditioned stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus |
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Definition
| the weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response; in classical conditioning, it occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus |
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Definition
| the reappearance of a learned response after its apparent distinction. explains why completely eliminating a conditioned response often requires more than one extinction session. |
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Term
| Higher Order conditioning |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, a procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with an already established conditioned stimulus. |
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Definition
| after conditioning, the tendency to respond to a stimulus that resembles the one involved in the original conditioning; in classical conditioning, it occurs when a stimulus that resembles the conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned reaction. (e.g. if train dog to salivate to c on a piano, he may also respond to d, even though he did not pair d with food) |
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Definition
| the tendency to respond differently to two or more similar stimulus; in classical conditioning, it occurs when a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus fails to evoke the conditioned response. (if play c on piano and give him food, but never give him food when play c on guitar, he will only salivate to c on piano) |
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Definition
| behavior becomes more likely to occur or less so depending on its consequences. responses in operant conditioning are generally not reflexive and are more complex than in classical conditioning. research in the area is closely associated with B.F. Skinner, who called his approach "radical behaviorism" |
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Definition
| in operant conditioning, strengthens or increases the probability of a response |
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Definition
| in operant conditioning, weakens or decreases the probability of a response. immediate consequences usually have a greater effect on a response than do delayed consequences. |
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Definition
| something pleasant follows a response |
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Definition
| something unpleasant is removed |
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Definition
| something unpleasant follows the response |
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Definition
| something pleasant is removed |
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Definition
| a chamber equipped with a device that delivers a reinforcer (usually food) when an animal makes a desired response, or a punisher, such as a brief shock, when the animal makes an undesired response. shows that extinction, stimulus generalization, and stimulus discrimination occur in operant conditioning as well as classical conditioning. a discriminative stimulus signals that a response is likely to be followed by a certain type of consequence. |
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Term
| Extinction in Operant conditioning |
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Definition
| occurs when a response is no longer followed by a reinforcer |
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Term
| stimulus generalization in operant conditioning |
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Definition
| the tendency for a response that has been reinforced (or punished) in the presence of one stimulus to occur (or be suppressed) in the presence of other stimuli |
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Term
| stimulus discrimination in operant conditioning |
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Definition
| the tendency of a response to occur in the presence of one stimulus but not int he presence of other, similar stimuli that differ from it in some dimension |
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Definition
| a stimulus that signals when a particular response is likely to be followed by a certain type of consequence (e.g. facial expressions) |
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Term
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Definition
| a reinforcement schedule in which a particular response is always reinforced; leads to the most rapid learning |
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Term
| intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement |
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Definition
| a reinforcement schedule in which a particular response is sometimes but not always reinforced; makes a response resistant to extinction (helps account for the persistence of superstitious rituals) |
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Term
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Definition
| used to train behaviors with a low probability of occurring spontaneously. reinforcers are given for successive approximations to the desired response until desired response is achieved. sometimes doesn't work due to instinctive drift( the tendency for an organism to revert to instinctive behavior during operant learning) |
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| Example of Albert from Hock |
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Definition
| Albert was conditioned to fear rats. whenever he reached for a rat, a steel bar was truck. his fear had generalized to other hairy or furry objects.......did not have time to counter condition him (a conditional stimulus is paired with some other stimulus that elicits a response incompatible with the unwanted response...e.g. Peter learned to not fear rabbits b/c whenever a rabbit came, he was given milk and crackers) |
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Term
| Superstition and Conditioning (Hock 11) |
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Definition
B.F. skinner...
subject: 8 pigeons
every 15 seconds, food pellets were released into cage, regardless of what the animal was doing at the time.
superstitious behaviors in six pigeons...what the bird was doing at the time the food pellet was released was thought to the bird to be the cause of his getting food.
reason why superstitions are so resistant to extinction demonstrated by the pigeon that hopped 10,000 times before giving up his behavior when no food was given to him: when a behavior is only reinforced once in a while in a given situation (partial reinforcement), it becomes difficult to extinguish b/c the expectation stays high that the superstitious behavior might work to produce the reinforcing consequence. |
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Term
| Principles of Punishment and Training |
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Definition
| Punishments fail when they are inconsistent; when the recipient responds with anxiety, fear, or rage (emotional response may override learning potential); when it does not immediately follow behavior; when it does not inform the recipient how it might be avoided in the future; when the consequence thought to be a punishment proves to be reinforcing (e.g. when a kid wants attention, the punishment is attention so it is in fact reinforcing). |
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Term
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Definition
| the application of operant-conditioning principles, has been used successfully in many settings, but when used inappropriately, reinforcement and punishment both have their pitfalls |
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Definition
| rewards that are given out indiscriminately, as in efforts to raise children's self esteem, do not reinforce desirable behavior. and an exclusive reliance on extrinsic reinforcement can sometimes undermine the power of intrinsic reinforcement. but money and praise do not usually interfere with intrinsic pleasure when a person is rewarded for succeeding or making progress rather than for merely participating in an activity, or when a person is already highly interested in the activity. |
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Term
| Innate tendencies and conditioning |
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Definition
it was once thought that much learning and behavior was the result of conditioning; now know there are lots of other means applied.
fear stimuli: already show some innate fear of heights or snakes (learned v. quickly, perhaps by just once seeing fear in mother's face, e.g.). |
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Term
| innate bases for learning |
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Definition
food aversions; fear stimuli; interest in humans/faces (gives opportunities to learn about enviornment hat doesn't have to do with conditioning...learning about physical features of people you are going to interact with...learn what's important/dangerous in environment by facial expression and eye gaze); basic physics (know what's physically impossible..measured through facial expression/pupil dilation/heartbeat/looking times); bsic mathematics; LANGUAGE:
LANGUAGE:
innate b/c critical learning period (experience expectant learning); sensitivity to phonemes; eaae of learning; accents; studies in deaf communities saw that children did a great job of developing own language system in absence of formal language system; early babbling consistent with exposure to language; universal; readily learned early in life; part of brain specifically for language. |
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Term
| social basis for learning |
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Definition
| imitation is crucial to human learning....why should children be so committed to following exactly and learning rules: trusting that adults has appropriate knowledge rather than putting themselves at risk by experimenting every time (evolutionary); we've trained kids to follow instructions; assumes older individual knows something you don't; reduces the risk and cost of experimenting; worth even imitating unnecessary actions b/c the risk is worth it (maybe even prejudice is imitated) |
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Term
| Problems with memory reliability |
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Definition
- source misattribution: the inability to distinguish what you originally experienced from what you heard or were told later about an event
-confabulation: confusion of an event that happened to someone else with one that happened to you; a belief that you remember something when it never actually happened; it is most likely when you have thought or heard about the event many times, the image of the event contains many details, the event is easy to remember. this can happen with brainwashing and eye witness accounts. Ex: babysitter who lied and said that a robbery occurred and it is repeated so many times that baby creates an image and believes that it truly happened...turned out babysitter lied. |
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Term
| Problems with eyewitness accounts |
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Definition
cross race identification (other race effect): have difficulty distinguishing individuals that belong to different racial groups
question wording (e.g., crashed vs. hit)...e.g. "what did the guy look like when he ran past?" - suggests that the person was running, so person is guilty, even when may not have run...this changes memory
Misleading information
Specific police policies: show 8 photos at once-more likely to choose who looks most like the criminal, not necessarily the one who actually did it; narrows it down to people who were accused in the past; picture may replace picture of actual criminal in your head...may actually believe that person did it. to fix this: the questioner should be "blind" so they don't have suspicions of who did it, and better to show photos one at a time so can say yes or no and don't feel pressure to choose one of the suspects.
Subtle cues may influence what the witness thinks they should say.
people remember some types of information more readily (Bigler and Hirschfield's studies of gender and ethnic bias: easier to remember stereotypical information rather than counter-stereotypical information) |
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Term
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Definition
| conscious, intentional recollection of an event or an item |
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Term
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Definition
| the ability to retrieve and reproduce form memory previously encountered material |
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Term
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Definition
| the ability to identify previously encountered material |
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Definition
| unconscious retention in memory, as evidenced by the effect of previous experience or perviously encountered information on current thoughts or actions |
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Definition
| a method for measuring implicit memory in which a person reads or listens to information and is later tested to see whether the information affects performance on another type of task (e.g. if given a list of words that start with def-, and then asked to say words that start with def- will probably start with some of the words on the list) |
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Term
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Definition
| a method for measuring retention that compares time required to relearn material with the time used in the initial learning of material |
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Term
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Definition
| in the three-box model of memory, a limited capacity memory system involved in the retention of info for a brief periods; it is also used to hold information retrieved form long term memory for temporary use |
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Term
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Definition
| in many models of memory, a cognitively complex form of short term memory that involves active mental processes that control retrieval of information from long term memory and interpret that information appropriately for a given task |
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Term
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Definition
| in the three box model of memory, the memory system involved in the long term storage of info |
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Term
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Definition
| memories for the performance of actions or skills ("knowing how") |
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Definition
| memories of facts, rules, concepts, and events ("knowing that'); they include semantic and episodic memories |
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Definition
| memories of general knowledge, including facts, rules, concepts, and propositions |
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Definition
| memories of personally experienced events and the contexts in which they occur |
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Definition
| the tendency for recall of the first and last items on a list to surpass recall of items in the middle list |
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Definition
incoming sensory information makes a brief stop in the sensory register, which momentarily retains it in the form of sensory images. short term memory retains new info forup to 30 seconds by most estimates. the capacity of STM is extremely limited but can be extended if info is organized into larger unites by chunking. working memory also part of this. long term memory contains an enormous amount of into that must be organized to make it manageable. words are often organized by semantic categories. many models represent its contents as a network of interrelated concepts.
often invoked to explain the serial position effect in memory, but although it can explain the primary effect, it cannot explain why a recency effect sometimes occurs after a considerable delay. |
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Term
| Why don't we remember everything |
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Definition
Information in sensory and short-term memory appears to decay if it does not receive further processing. new information may erase and replace old information in long-term memory. Proactive and retroactive interference may take place (proactive - forgetting that occurs when previously stored material interferes with the ability to remember similar, more recently learned material; retroactive interference: forgetting that occurs when recently learned material interferes with the ability to remember similar, more recently learned material). cue-dependent forgetting may occur when retrieval cues are inadequate. the most effective retrieval cues are those that were present at the time of the initial experience. a person's mental or physical state may also act asa retrieval cue, evoking a sate-dependent memory. we tend to remember best those events that are congruent with our current mood (mood-congruent memory). also amnesia.
Also: replacement: new knowledge replacing old knowledge; thinking about brain efficiency; relevant people in your life have been replaced.
interference: relevant info competing for memory space |
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Term
| How can we improve memory when studying? how can we prevent losing long-term memories as we age? |
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Definition
| rehearsal: maintenance rehearsal (rote repetition of material in order to maintain its availability in memory); elaborative rehearsal (association of new information with already stored knowledge and analysis of the new information to make it memorable); deep processing (process of the meaning). read-recite-review strategy helps encourage active learning and produces better results than simply reading and rereading. mnemonics can enhance retention by promoting elaborative encoding and makes material meaningful. retrieval practice is necessary if a memory is going to be consolidated, and therefore last and be available for a long time (testing; practice test; flashcards; elaborative rehearsal and deep processing). avoidance of memory loss: word games; good nutrition; exercise; active social life...mental challenges reduce risk of dementia. |
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Term
| The repression controversy |
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Definition
| Traumatic amnesia, which allegedly involves the forgetting of specific traumatic events for long periods of time, is highly controversial, as is repression, the psychodynamic explanation of traumatic amnesia. Because these concepts lack good empirical support, psychological scientists are skeptical about their validity and about the accuracy of "recovered memories." critics argue that many therapists, unaware of the power of suggestion and the dangers of confabulation, have encouraged false memories of victimization. |
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Term
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Definition
| the forgetting of personal information, usually occurs b/c of disease or injury to the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| involves a loss of personal identity and has psychological causes (e.g. traumatic event). quite rare. |
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Definition
| involves the forgetting of specific traumatic events for long periods of time; much controversy surrounding this; repression controversy |
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Term
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Definition
| Most people cannot recall any events from earlier than the third or fourth year of life. the reasons for such childhood amnesia include the immaturity of certain brain structures, making it very difficult for young children to focus attention, encode, and remember; cognitive factors such as immature cognitive schemas, lack of linguistic skills, and lack of a self-concept; and lack of knowledge of social conventions for encoding and reporting events. |
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Term
| Cultural variation in childhood memories |
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Definition
Studies looking at childhood memories in china and the us: american children were more likely to remember individualistic experiences. they also had earlier first memories. chinese children's memories were more family/community oriented. at three years, american children's first memories more individualistic than the ones of the Chinese children. Also, american more likely to remember memories earlier (more opportunities to create these memories; concept of the "self" may be important...so sense of self emerges at younger age, and thus earlier memories; part of personal narrative-defining yourself..you are special, wonderful, unique, you should remember what makes you so; kids rely on parents to prompt memories and parents prompt the memories that are culturally appropriate; deep processing - fits better with what they know if they are "stars of their own little play."
Maori of New Zealand are important exceptions...they are a collaborative society...Maori adults had earlier first memories than Americans and Asians even though collaborative society and less emphasis on self...thought to be because of emphasis on the pat and oral history...kids encouraged to articulate memories at a v. early age. |
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Definition
Neuroscientist Karim Nadar hypothesized that by blocking protein synthesis during recall he could alter memories; he conditioned rats to fear a sound that was associated with a mild shock...they would freeze when sound played. He then injected their brains with a chemical that stopped protein synthesis at the same time that the sound was played. the next time he played the sound, the rats did not respond to the sound in the conditioned manner. it appeared to only affect that specific memory: could remember other associations.
What does this tell us about memory: the act of accessing a memory can actually change it; further studies showed protein synthesis that occurs during recall v. similar to that which occurs during memory creation; the proteins that cause a memory to reconsolidate may need to be present during recall or the memory may cease to exist.
Alternative explanation?
-could be changing emotional response; the rats could be not necessarily forgetting that music is followed by shock, but rather losing the physiological response to it; the memory was neutralized.
applications to those suffering from PTSD |
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Term
| Beta-blocker treatments for traumatic memories |
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Definition
Psychologist Alain Brunet studied 19 people with traumatic memories. he asked them to describe their memories and gave them beta blockers (anxiety reducing medication). one week later they remembered the event just as well, but it no longer brought the same level of arousal/anxiety/fear that it previously had. the memories no longer had as powerful negative impact. they were now manageable. support for alternative explanation in rats. maybe now creating more positive associations with trauma (sense of relaxation and peace when recall memories b/c on anxiety reducing drug)
Potential problems with this: memories of pain serve a purpose (help avoid danger); can cause you to avoid danger; don't want to change the nature of all bad memories-just those that are maladaptive (e.g. don't want to change rational fear of snakes but want to desensitize extremely debilitating memories) |
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Term
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Definition
| Loftus's study focuses on the power of questions containing presuppositions to alter a person's memory of an event. based on the study, Loftus argued that an accurate theory of memory and recall must include a process of reconstruction when new information is integrated into the original memory of an event. the findings of these studies cannot be explained by assuming that recall simply involves a mental replaying of an event, even with varying degrees of accuracy. new information aded means that your representation of the original memory is altered or reconstructed. later, if you are asked a question about the event, your recall will not be of the actual original event but of the reconstruction of it. important to consider in eyewitness testimony (how you ask questions, etc). |
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Term
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Definition
| a rule of thumb that suggests a course of action or guides problem solving but does not guarantee an optimal solution. can result in stereotypes (may be trying to figure out who is trustworthy person...want to sit next to them on the bus...choose someone who appears to be more trustworthy...may sit next to older person, women with children, in group (gender...) |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency to consult one's emotions instead of estimating probabilities objectively. can cause an overreaction but may be avoiding loss (e.g. NRA accusing gun control advocates of using affect heuristic...emotional response to really serious events and this is causing them to pass laws that may not actually be effective) |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency to judge the probability of a type of event by how easy it is to think of examples or instances. e.g. difference between airplane crashes and car crashes and fear of airplanes v.s cars (at much greater risk for crashing if in car, but fear of planes b/c the airplane crashes are more publicized...makes it seem more prevalent than it really is) |
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Term
| Functions of and problems with heuristics/biases |
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Definition
| the ability to reason clearly and rationally is affected by many cognitive biases. people tend to exaggerate the likelihood of improbable events in part b/c of the affect and availability heuristics. they are swayed in their choices to avoid loss and by the framing effect - how the choice is presented. they forgo economic gain because of the fairness bias, which appears to have evolutionary roots and is being studied using brain scans. they often overestimate their ability to have made accurate predictions (the hindsight bias, attend mostly to evidence that confirms what they want to believe (the confirmation bias) and are mentally rigid, forming mental sets and seeing patterns where none exist. |
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Term
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Definition
| the theory of cognitive dissonance holds that people are motivated to reduce the tension that exists when two cognitions, or a cognition and a behavior, conflict. they can reduce dissonance by rejecting or changing a belief, changing their behavior, or rationalizing. dissonance is most uncomfortable, and people are most likely to try to reduce it, after a decision has been made (post-decision dissonance); and when their actions violate their concept of themselves as honest and kind; and when they have put hard work into an activity (the justification affect). more cognitive dissonance if less reward for behavior (e.g. if paid more to do something, less dissonance) |
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Term
| What are the different ways in which intelligence is defined and tested? |
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Definition
Many different tests; modern best known test based on Stanford and Binet; fill in basic words, differences between concepts and engaging in spatial rotation, as a while covers verbal, spatial, and reasoning skills.
Intelligence is hard to define. the PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH focuses on how well people perform o standardized aptitude tests. most psychometric psychologists believe that a general ability, a g factor, underlies this performance. others, however, argue that a person can do well in some kinds of reasoning or problem solving but not others. |
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Term
| What is the theory of multiple intelligences? |
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Definition
| In contrast to the psychometric approach, cognitive approaches to intelligence emphasize several kinds of intelligence and the strategies people use to solve problems. Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence proposes three aspects of intelligence: componential (including metacognition), experiential or creative, and contextual or practical. contextual intelligence allows you to acquire tacit knowledge (strategies for success that are not explicitly taught but that instead must be inferred). some psychologists argue that there are other "intelligences" besides those usually considered, such as musical intelligence; kinesthetic intelligence; the capacity for insight into yourself and others; and emotional intelligence, the ability to identify your own and other people's emotions accurately, express emotions clearly, and regulate emotions in yourself and others. |
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Term
| What conflicts exist over defining and measuring intelligence? |
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Definition
- if you have test that isn't carful/well thought out, you can be testing something other than what you really want
- the IQ represents how well a person has done on an intelligence test compared to other people. Binet designed the first widely used intelligence test to identify children who could benefit from remedial work. But in the US, people assumed that intelligence tests revealed natural ability and used the tests to categorize people in school and in the armed services
- IQ tests have been criticized for being biased in favor of white, middle-class people. However, efforts to construct tests that are free of cultural influence have been disappointing. culture affects nearly everything to do with taking a test, from attitudes to problem-solving strategies. negative stereotypes about a person's ethnicity, gender, or age may cause the person to feel stereotype threat, which can lead to anxiety that interferes with test performance.
-motivation, creativity, health, social skills, and other factors are also important influences on success. |
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Term
| What are the environmental influences on intelligence? |
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Definition
-family influences: stimulation, parental involvement, stressors on family. can combine with genes in exposure to stimulating materials due to passive and active behaviors
-influences of schooling: attending school makes children have higher IQ scores; in one study, children who were slightly older but had one year more schooling did much better on parts of an IQ test then did slightly younger children i the grade below them; academic stimulation helps performance (IQ drops in summer).
Also:
poor prenatal care, malnutrition, exposure to toxins, stressful family circumstances
conversely, a healthy and stimulating environment, and certain kinds of enrichment activities, can improve performance. IQ scores have been rising in many countries for several generations, most likely because of improved education, better health, and the increase in jobs requiring abstract thought. |
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Term
| How are early measures of intelligence related to later outcomes? |
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Definition
| Longitudinal studies that measured the same children's IQ scores at different ages have shown impressive continuity from age 5 onward (kids score tend to remain the same as gets older). IQ is a strong predictor of academic, economic, and occupational success. Long term, a child's IQ is more closely related to their later occupational success than is socioeconomic status, school attended, or any other variable that has been studied. Nonetheless, motivation, creativity, health, social skills, and other factors are also important influences on success. |
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Term
| What types of interventions are effective in improving intelligence and later outcomes? |
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Definition
| Move race/sex questions to end of test; have someone from racial in-group give the test; in the section where they read aloud before the test -> have someone say "grades are not affected by gender/race/class etc."; emphasize that all students can succeed; reduce prevalence of negative stereotypes; highlight counter-stereotypical examples |
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Term
| What are the issues surrounding stigmatized groups and their intelligence/scores/academic performance? what is thought to be the cause of differences between group's average scores? |
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Definition
-average IQ scores of children in different racial and ethnic groups differ
-statements about group differences refer to group averages rather than to any individual score
- these differences are explained in part by social class differences: in US percentage of children living in poor families is much higher about African Americans and Latinos than among Euro and Asian American Families...some differences in test averages and grade averages regardless of income
-African American students at highly selective schools go on to perform equally well in graduate school and professional careers...so potential to perform that is not apparent on tests...then why do wee see those differences?
-self esteem
-attitude about test
-culturally designed (made by white rich people, does it apply to other social economic groups?)
-other factors beyond poverty that might affect?
-minority status/self image
-lack of earlier opportunities/education
-distrust of authority figures from a racial out-group (mistrust of person giving the test...so kids from a nonwhite background do better when someone from their racial in-group hands out he test
-content molded for different audience
-awareness of stereotypes/expectation (stress of stereotypes/expectations)
SEXES: teachers treat boys and girls differently...
Claude STEELE:
gave very difficult section of GRE to african american and white students and african american students....found white students performed better. when person said next time that test is not a measure of intellectual ability, scores became equal; told students that there was no interracial differences in test scores: scores became equal
eye-trackers show that students exposed to stereotype threat work more inefficiently - double checking answers and rereading questions.
same thing happened to whites when they were told asians would perform better
same with gender |
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