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Psych History Exam 2
chapters 9-13
184
Psychology
Undergraduate 2
10/23/2007

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Term
Brentano        
Definition

use introspection to understand functions of mind not its elements

act psychology 

Term
act psychology
Definition

Brentano

focused on mental operations and functions

interactions between mental processes and physical events 

Term
clever Hans phenomenon  
Definition

creation of apparently high-intelligence feats by animals

consciously or unconsciously furnishing them with subtle behaviour cues 

Term
context theory of meaning
Definition

titchener

a sensation is given meaning by the images it elicits

meaning is determined by law of contiguity 

Term
creative synthesis  
Definition

arrangement and rearrangement of mental elements

can result from apperception 

Term
Donders
Definition
used reaction time to measure the time it took to perform various mental acts
Term
Ebbinghaus
Definition
first to study learning and memory experimentally
Term
elements of thought
Definition

Wundt and Titchener

basic sensations from which more complex thoughts are derived 

Term
feelings
Definition

basic elements of emotions

accompany each sensation

Wundt thought emotions made of combinations of elemental feelings

related to Tridimensional theory of feeling 

Term
general impression
Definition
thought a person has in mind before choosing the words to express it
Term
Husserl
Definition

wanted pure phenomology seeking the essence of pure experience

mental essences 

Term
imageless thoughts
Definition

Kulpe

pure mental thoughts of judging and doubting without those acts hvaing particular referents or images 

Term
immediate experience  
Definition
direct subjective experience as it occurs
Term
intentionality
Definition

Brentano

mental acts always intend something

mental acts always embrace either some object in the physical world or some mental image (idea) 

Term
introspection
Definition

reflection on one's subjective experience

whether such reflection is directed toward the direction of the presence or absence of a sensation (Wundt or Titchener)

or toward the detection of complex thought processes (Brentano, Stumpf, Kulpe, Husserl) 

Term
Kulpe
Definition

applied systematic experimental introspection to the study of problem solving

found that some mental operations are imageless

imageless thoughts 

Wurzburg school (imageless thoughts, problems have motivaters til solved) 

Term
mediate experience
Definition
experience provided by various measuring devices and therefore not immediate, direct experience
Term
mental chronometry
Definition
measurement of the time required to perform various mental acts
Term
mental essences  
Definition

Husserl

universal, unchanging mental processes that characterize the mind and in terms of which we do commerce with the physical environment 

Term
mental set
Definition

problem-solving strategy

can be induced by instructions or by experience

used without a person's awareness 

Term
perception
Definition

mental experience

occurs when sensations are given meaning by the memory of past experiences 

Term
phenomological introspection
Definition
focuses on mental phenomena rather than isolated mental elements
Term
principle of contrasts
Definition

Wundt

experiences of one type often intensify opposite types of experiences

eating sour vs. sweet makes sweet sweeter 

Term
principle of the heterogony of ends
Definition

Wundt

goal-directed activity often causes experiences that modify the original motivational pattern 

Term
principle toward the development of opposites
Definition

Wundt

tendency for prolonged experience of one type to create a desire for the opposite type of experience 

Term
pure phenomology
Definition

Husserl

purpose to create a taxonomy of the mind

before a science of psychology is possible, we need to understand the essences of mental processes in terms of understanding and responding to the world 

Term
savings
Definition
difference between the time it originally takes to learn something and the time it takes to relearn it
Term
school
Definition
a group of scientists who share common assumptions, goals, problems, and methods
Term
sensation
Definition

basic mental experience

triggered by an environmental stimulus 

Term
stimulus error
Definition
letting past experience influence an introspective report
Term
structuralism
Definition

school of psychology

founded by Titchener

to describe structure of mind 

Term
Stumpf
Definition

interested in acoustical perception

insisted all psychology study intact, meaningful mental experiences

instead of searching for meaningless mental elements 

Term
Titchener
Definition

created Structuralism

opposite of voluntarism 

in the tradition of empiricism-associationism 

Term
tridimensional theory of feelings
Definition

Wundt

feelings vary along three dimensions:

pleasantness/unpleasantness

excitement/calm

strain/relaxation 

Term
Vaihinger
Definition

because sensations are all that we can be certain of

all conclusions reached about physical reality must be false 

but sensations are still essential for societal living 

Term
Volkerpsychologie
Definition

Wundt

10 volume book

invesitages higher mental processes through historical analysis and naturalistic observation 

Term
voluntarism
Definition

Wundt

school of psychology

belief that through process of apperception, individuals could direct their attention towards whatever they wished 

Term
will
Definition

Wundt

aspect of humans allowing them to direct their attention anywhere they wish

from voluntarism 

Term
Wundt
Definition

founder of experimental psychology

voluntarism 

Term
Wurzberg school
Definition

group of psychologists under influence of Kulpe

at University of Wurzberg

group found some thoughts occur without a specific referent (they are imageless)

higher mental processes could be studied experimentally

problems have motivational properties that persist until the problem is solved 

Term
adaptive features
Definition
features an organism possess allowing it to survive and reproduce
Term
Binet
Definition

found that following Galton's methods of measuring intelligence falsely concluded deaf and blind children had low intelligence

attempted to measure cognitive abilities that constituted intelligence directly 

Term
Binet-Simon scale of intelligence
Definition

scale made by Binet and Simon

to directly measure various cognitive abilities they believed intelligence comprised

appeared 1905

revised 1908 and 1911 

Term
Burt
Definition

studies of identical twins reared together and apart proved intelligence innate

invented his data, major scandal ensued 

Term
Cattell
Definition

worked with Galton

developed strong interest in measuring individual differences

brought Galton's methods of intelligence testing to US 

represented functionalism at Columbia University 

Term
coefficient of correlation (r)
Definition

mathematical expression indicating the magnitude of correlation between two variables

Pearson 

Term
correlation
Definition
systematic variation between two variables
Term
Darwin
Definition

made theory of evolution

emphasized struggle for survival resulting in natural selection of the fittest

showed continuity between human and nonhuman animals

importance of individual differences

importance of adaptive behaviour

strongly influenced subsequent psychology 

Term
eugenics
Definition
use of selective breeding to increase the general intelligence of the population
Term
evolutionary psychology
Definition

modern extension of Darwin's theory to explanation of human and nonhuma social behaviour

aka sociobiology 

Term
factor analysis
Definition

complex statistical technique

analyzing correlations among measurements and attempting to explain the observed correlations by postulating various influences 

Term
fitness
Definition

Darwin

organism's ability to survive and reproduce 

Term
Galton
Definition

influenced by cousin Darwin

interested in measurement of individual differences

convinced mental ability is inherited

recommened eugenics

    first to:

attempt systematic measurement of intelligence

use questionnaire to gather data

use word-association test

study mental imagery

define and use correlation and median

systematically study twins 

Term
general intelligence (g)
Definition

Spearman 

aspect of intelligence largely inherited

coordinates specific intellectual abilities 

Term
Goddard
Definition

translated Binet's intelligence test to English

used it to test and identify kids with mental retardation

extreme nativist

recommended those with mental deficiencies be sterilized or institutionalized

as a result

amount of immigrants allowed in US reduced 

Term
Hollingworth
Definition

rejected popular belief that women achieve less than men because they're intellectually inferior

emphasized differences in social opportunity

focused on improving education of subnormal and gifted students 

Term
inclusive fitness
Definition

involves survival and perpetuation of copies of one's genes into subsequent generations

one can be fit by helping own kin survive and reproduce as well as by just producing offspring 

Term
inheritance of acquired characteristics
Definition

Lamarck

adaptive abilities developed during a lifetime passed onto the organism's offspring 

Term
intelligence quotient (IQ)
Definition

Stern

suggested procedure for quantifying intelligence

divide mental age by chronological age 

Term
Lamarck
Definition

proposed adaptive characterisics developed during lifetime are inherited by offspring (inheritance of acquired characteristics)

mechanism by which species were transformed

 

Term
Malthus
Definition

economist

wrote essay on principle of population

gave Darwin principle he needed to explain his observations made upon Beagle

because more individuals born than environment can support, struggle for survival ensues and only fittest survive 

Term
mental age
Definition

Stern

composite score reflecting all levels of Binet-Simon test that a child could successfully pass 

Term
mental orthopedics
Definition

Binet

exercises suggested for enhancing determination, attention, and discipline

to prepare a child for formal education 

Term
natural selection
Definition

from Darwin's theory of evolution

more members of a species born than environment can support, nature selects those with characteristics most conducive to survival under the circumstances

this allows fittest to reproduce 

 

Term
nature-nurture controversy
Definition
debate over extent to which important attributes are inherited or learned
Term
Pearson
Definition
devised formula for calculating coefficient of correlation
Term
regression towards the mean
Definition

tendency for extremes to become less extreme in one's offspring

tall parents...not so tall kids 

Term
Simon
Definition
worked with Binet to make first intelligence test
Term
social darwinism
Definition

Spencer

if given freedom to compete in society, ablest individuals will succeed

weaker will fail

this is how it should be 

Term
Spearman
Definition

used early form of factor analysis

found that intelligence was made of specific factors (s)

and general factors (g)

believed general factors (g) of intelligence were largely inherited 

Term
Spencer
Definition

followed Larmarck, then Darwin

applied Darwinian principles to society

thought society should be laissez-faire 

ablest could then prevail

social Darwinist 

Term
spencer-bain principle
Definition

observations made by bain and spencer

behaviour resulting in pleasureable consequences tends to be repeated

behaviour resulting in painful experiences tends to be avoided 

Term
Stern
Definition

made term "mental age"

suggested intelligence quotient as way to quantify intelligence 

 

Term
struggle for survival
Definition
situation arising when there's more offspring of a species than environmental resources can support
Term
survival of the fittest
Definition

in a struggle for limited resources

those with traits conducive to survival will live and reproduce 

Term
Terman
Definition

revised Binet's intelligence test

made it more compatible with US culture

along with Goddard and Yerkes made Army Alpha and Army Beta tests

conducted a longitudinal study of gifted children

found gifted children did not fade but became gifted healthy adults 

Term
Wallace
Definition
developed a theory of evolution like Darwin's near when Darwin did
Term
Yerkes
Definition

suggested psychology could help in war effort (WWI)

by making tests to best place recruits according to ability and keep mentally unfit out

testing program largely ineffective

discontinued after war 

Term
adaptive act
Definition

Carr

unit of behaviour with:

need, environmental setting, and a response to satisfy that need 

Term
Angell
Definition

promoted functionalism

president of APA and chairman of Chicago University for 25 years

 

Term
applied psychology
Definition

useful in solving practical problems

Munsterberg and functionalists liked it

structuralists opposed it 

Term
Calkins
Definition

never got Phd because she's a woman

contributed to verbal learning

memory

self-psychology

first woman president of APA 

Term
Carr
Definition
early functionalist psychologist at U of Chicago
Term
Clark
Definition

conducted research demonstrating negative effect of segregation of children

some evidence cited in 1954 Supreme court decision ending legal basis of segregated education in US

first black president of APA 

Term
connectionism
Definition

Thorndike

theory of learning

concern with neural bonds or connections that associate sense impressions  and impulses into action 

Term
Dewey
Definition

key person in development of functionalism

mark beginning of school of functionalism with his 1896 publication of "the reflex arc concept in psychology" 

Term
dynamic psychology
Definition

Woodworth

stresses internal variables that motivate organisms to act 

Term
empirical self
Definition

James

self that consists of everything a person can call his or her own

material self-possessions

social self-self as known by others

spiritual self-all a person is conscious of 

Term
forensic psychology
Definition

Munsterberg first forensic psychologist 

application of psychological principles to legal matters 

Term
functionalism
Definition

influenced by Darwin

stressed role of consciousness and behaviour in adapting to environment 

Term
habits
Definition

James

learned patterns of behaviour vital for functioning of society

functionalism 

Term
Hall
Definition

created first US experimental lab

founded APA and was first president

invited Freud to Clark University to give lectures

helped psychoanalysis recieve international recognition

recapitulation theory stimulated interest in developmental psychology

among first to advocate for sex ed for children 

Term
identical elements theory of transfer
Definition

Thorndike

the extent to which learning transfers from one situation to another is determined by the similarity between the two situations 

Term
ideo-motor theory of behaviour
Definition

James

ideas cause behaviour

thus we can control our behaviour by controlling our ideas 

Term
industrial psychology
Definition

Munsterberg first industrial psychologist 

application of psych principles to:

personnel selection

increasing employee productivity

equipment design

marketing, advertising, packaging of products 

Term
James
Definition

helped found functionalism (after Dewey)

emphasized function of consciousness and behaviour

only valid criterion for evaluating thought, theory or act is whether is works

pragmatist

psychology should employ scientific and non-scientific procedures

individually, sometimes believe in free will, sometimes determinism 

radical empiricist 

self as knower

stream of consciousness 

Term
James-Lange theory of emotion
Definition

people first respond, then have an emotional experience

run, then be scared

we should act according to the way we want to feel 

Term
Lange
Definition

James-Lange theory of emotion

functionalist

with James, proposed theory that emotional experiences follow behaviour 

Term
law of disuse
Definition

Thorndike

reward strengthens associations

punishment weakens them

later revised: rewards strengthen but punishment has no effect 

Term
law of exercise
Definition

Thorndike

strength of an association varied with the frequency of the association's use

discarded in 1929 

Term
law of use
Definition

Thorndike

more often an association is made, stronger it becomes

discarded in 1929 

Term
Morgan
Definition

early comparative psychologist

gradation of consciousness among animal species

to infer cognitive processes of animals, he observed their natural behaviour 

Term
Morgan's canon
Definition

insistence that explanations of animal behaviour be kept as simple as possible

one should never attribute higher mental activities to an animal if lower mental activities are adequate to explain its behaviour 

Term
Munsterberg
Definition

stressed application of psych principles to clinical, forensic, and industrial areas

created applied psychology

first forensic psychologist

first industrial psychologist 

reciprocal antagonism 

Term
paired-association technique
Definition

Calkins 

widely-used method of investigating verbal learning

pairs of stimulus material first presented to subjects

after several exposures one pair is presented and the subject is asked to recall the second 

Term
pragmatism
Definition
usefulness is best criterion for determining validity of an idea
Term
puzzle box
Definition

Thorndike

experimental chamber used for systematically studying animal behaviour 

Term
recapitulation theory
Definition

Hall

all stages of human evolution are reflected in the life of an individual 

Term
reciprocal antagonism
Definition

Munsterberg

method of treating mentally disturbed people

strengthen thoughts antagonistic to those causing a problem 

Term
radical empiricism
Definition

James

contention that all consistent categories of human experience are worthy of study

whether or not amenable to practices of science

 

Term
Romanes
Definition

followed Darwin

studied animal behaviour

research bad-anecdotal evidence and subjective 

Term
self as knower
Definition

James

how a person feels about him or herself based on the ratio of successes to attempts

increase self-esteem by accomplishing more or attempting less 

Term
stream of consciousness
Definition

James

how the mind works

it has an ever-changing stream of interrelated, purposive thoughts

rather than static elements that could be isolated from each other

opposite to what structuralists thought (they thought you could isolate thoughts from each other) 

Term
Sumner
Definition

under Hall

first black American Phd in Psych

led Howard University to become big training center for black psychologists 

Term
Thorndike
Definition

marks transition between schools of functionalism and behaviourism

concluded from animal research that learning occurs gradually

occurs independent of consciousness

the same for all mammals

final theory of learning: practice alone has no effect on association (neural bond)

and that positive consequences strengthen an association but negative consequences do not weaken it 

Term
Washburn
Definition

first woman to attain doctorate in Psych

second female president of APA

contributed to comparative psychology by studying animal behaviour under controlled conditions before inferring the mental attributes necessary to explain the observed behaviour 

Term
Woodworth
Definition

functionalist

at Columbia University

emphasized the role of motivation in behaviour 

Term
association reflex
Definition

Bechtrev

term for what Pavlov called conditioned reflex 

Term
Bechterev
Definition

Like Pavlov

looked upon all human behaviour as reflexive

studied skeletal reflexes instead of glandular ones Pavlov did 

reflexology 

Term
behaviourism
Definition

school of psychology

founded by Watson

insisted behaviour be psychology's subject matter

goal to be prediction and control of behaviour 

Term
behaviour therapy
Definition
use of learning principles in treating behavioural or emotional problems
Term
conditioned reflex
Definition
a learned reflex
Term
conditioned response (CR)
Definition
response elicited by a conditioned stimulus (CS)
Term
conditioned stimulus (CS)
Definition
a previously biologically neutral stimulus that through experience comes to elicit a certain response (CR)
Term
cortical mosaic
Definition

Pavlov

pattern of points of excitation and inhibition that characterize the cortex at any given moment 

Term
disinhibition
Definition

inhibition of an inhibitory process

demonstrated when

after extinction

a loud noise causes the conditioned response to reappear 

Term
excitation
Definition

Pavlov

brain activity that leads to overt behaviour of some type 

Term
experimental neurosis
Definition
neurotic behaviour that Pavlov created in some lab animals by bringing excitatory and inhibitory tendencies into conflict
Term
extinction
Definition
elimination or reduction of a conditioned response (CR) that results when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented but is not followed by the unconditional stimulus (US)
Term
first signal system
Definition

objects or events that become signals (CS) for occurence of bio significant events

tone=food 

Term
hormic psychology
Definition

McDougall

emphasis on goal-directed behaviour 

Term
inhibition
Definition

Sechenov 

reduction or cessation of activity caused by stimulation

extinction causes CS to inhibit a conditioned response

discovery of inhibitive mechanisms in the brain led him to believe all human behaviour could be explained in terms of brain physiology 

 

Term
law of recency
Definition

Watson

usually correct response that terminates a learning trial

this response will be repeated when organism is in situation again 

Term
McDougall
Definition

behaviourism

different than Watson's behaviourism

emphasized purposive and instinctive behaviour

(hormic psychology) 

sentiment 

Term
methodological behaviourism
Definition

overt behaviour should be psych's subject matter

willing to speculate about internal causes of behaviour

like mental and phsiological states 

 

Term
Pavlov
Definition

shared Sechenov's goal of creating a totally objective psychology

focused on the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli that control behaviour

physiological processes that they initiate

all human behaviour is reflexive 

Term
radical behaviourism
Definition

only directly-observable events, like stimuli and responses, should be the psych's subject matter

avoid explanation of behaviour in terms of unobserved mental events

it can and should be avoided 

Term
radical environmentalism
Definition
most if not all human behaviour is caused by the environmental experience
Term
reflexology
Definition

Bechterev

approach to studying humans

study of relationship between environmental events and overt behaviour

one of the earliest behaviourist, maybe earliest 

Term
Sechenov
Definition

father of Russian objective psychology

all human behaviour in terms of stimuli and physiological mechanisms 

without recourse to metaphysical speculation of any type 

Term
second signal system
Definition

symbols of objects/events signalling occurence of bio significant events

escaping in response to word "fire" 

Term
sentiment
Definition

McDougall

condition occuring when 2 or more instinctual tendencies are elicited by the same object, event, or thought 

Term
spontaneous recovery
Definition
reappearance of a conditioned response after a delay following extinction
Term
tropism
Definition

Loeb

automatic orienting response in plants and animals

inspired Dewey

animals respond to stimuli in certain ways because of their biologic makeup 

Term
unconditioned reflex
Definition

an unlearned reflex

 

Term

unconditioned response (UR)

 

Definition
innate response elicited by the US that is naturally associated with it
Term
unconditioned stimulus (US)
Definition
stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UR)
Term
Watson
Definition

founder of behaviourism

psych's goal: prediction and control of behaviour

no existence of mental events

instincts play no role in human behaviour

mind body problem: monist

thought is nothing but implicit muscle movement 

Term
confirmation
Definition

Tolman

verification of a hypothesis, expectancy, or belief

Term
descriptive behaviourism
Definition

Skinner 

positivistic

DESCRIBES relationships between enviromental events and behaviour

rather than attempting to explain relationships 

 

Term
drive-reduction
Definition

Hull

mechanism of reinforcement

anything that reduces a drive is reinforcing 

Term
expectancy
Definition

Tolman

hypothesis tentatively confirmed 

Term
functional analysis
Definition

Skinner

approach to research

study the systematic relationship between behavioural and environmental events

focus on relationship between reinforcement contingincies and response rate or probability 

Term
Guthrie
Definition

accepted law of contiguity

not law of frequency

learning occurs at full strength after just one association between a pattern of stimuli and response

strength between two depends on number of reinforced pairings between two 

Term
habit strength (sHr)
Definition

Hull

strength of an association between a stimulus and response

strength depends on number of reinforced pairings between the two 

Term
Hull
Definition

formulated a complex hypothetico-deducto theory to explain all learning phenomena

drive-reduction

habit strength (sHr)

reaction potential (sEr) 

Term
hypothesis
Definition

Tolman

expectancy that occurs along during the early stages of learning 

Term
hypothetico-deductive theory
Definition

Hull

set of postulates from which empirical relationships are deduced/predicted

if empirical relationships are as predicted, theory gains strength

if not, theory loses strength and must be revised or abandoned 

Term
instrumental conditioning
Definition

Thorndike

organism learns to make a response that is intrumental in producing reinforcement 

Term
intervening variables
Definition
events believed to occur between environmental and behavioural events

intervening variables cannot be observed directly, they are thought to be causally related to behaviour

Hull's habit strength

Tolman's cognitive map

 

 

Term
latent extinction
Definition

animals who passively experience a goal box with no more reward extinguish a previously learned response to the box  faster than those without this experience

Term
latent learning
Definition

Tolman

learning occurring but not translated into behaviour 

Term
law of contiguity
Definition

Guthrie

one law of learning

once a pattern of stimuli is experienced along with a response, the two become associated

1959 revised: noticed signal for done 

Term
logical positivism
Definition
rhetorical concepts are admissable if they are tied to the observable world through operational definitions
Term
maintaining stimuli
Definition

Guthrie

internal or external stimuli keeping an organism active until goal is reached 

Term
molecular behaviour
Definition

small segment of behaviour such as:

a reflex or habit 

that is isolated for study 

Term
neobehaviourism
Definition

agreed with older behaviourism

overt behaviour should be psychology's subject matter

disagreed with old behaviourism that theoretical speculation concerning abstract entities must be avoided

such speculation is accepted if the theoretical terms employed are operationally defined

and lead to testable predictions about overt behaviour 

Term
observational terms
Definition

logical positivism

terms referring to empirical events 

Term
one-trial learning
Definition

Guthrie

association between a pattern of stimuli and response develops at full strength after just one pairing of the two 

Term
operant behaviour
Definition
behaviour that is emitted by an organism rather than elicited by a known stimulus
Term
operational definition
Definition
definition relating an abstract concept to the procedures used to measure it
Term
operationism
Definition
belief that all abstract scientific concepts should be operationally defined
Term
performance
Definition
translation of learning into behaviour
Term
physicalism
Definition

belief from logical positivism

all sciences should share common assumptions, principles, and methodologies

should model themselves after physics 

Term
positivism
Definition

science should study only those objects or events that can be experienced directly

all speculation about abstract entities should be avoided 

Term

purposive behaviour

 

Definition

behaviour directed toward some goal

terminates when goal is attained

molar behaviour 

Term
purposive behaviourism
Definition

Tolman

type of behaviorism he pursued

emphasizes molar rather than molecular behaviour 

Term
reaction potential (sEr)
Definition

Hull

probability of a learned response being elicited in a given situation

this probability is a function of the amount of drive and habit strength present 

Term
reinforcement
Definition

Hull-drive reaction

Skinner-anything increasing rate or probability of a response

Tolman-confirmation of a hypothesis, expectation, or belief

Guthrie-mechanical arrangement that prevents unlearning 

Term
respondent behaviour
Definition
behaviour elicited by a known stimulus
Term
Skinner
Definition

behaviourist

psych should study functional relationship between environtmental events

like reinforcement contingincies and behaviour

positivist 

Term
theoretical terms
Definition

logical positivism

those terms are employed to explain empirical observations 

Term
token economics
Definition
an arrangement within institutions where desirable behaviour is strengthened using valuable tokens as reinforcers
Term
Tolman
Definition

created kind of behaviourism that used mental constructs and  emphasized purposive behaviour

employed many intervening variables

most important was cognitive map

belief

expectancy 

confirmation

latent learning

hypothesis 

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