Term
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Definition
| Philosophical view that argues that our senses are passive - simply record the world around us; John Locke: tabula rasa |
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Definition
| the real objects in the world outside of us, typically at some distance from the perceiver, no direct knowledge of the distal stimulus |
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Definition
| light-sensitive tissue at the rear of each eyeball |
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Term
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Definition
| the stimulus info that actually reaches sensory receptors, a distal stimulus could exist but would appear to not exist if there were no proximal stimulus |
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Term
| if all knowledge comes from senses but sometimes senses give misleading proximal stimulus, how do we know world? |
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Definition
| learning, learning teaches us reality of appearance |
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Term
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Definition
| process through which 1 sensory experience is linked to another |
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Term
| distance cues: pictorial cues, binocular cues, parallax and optic flow, convergence angle |
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Definition
pictorial: cues present in single retinal image
binocular: require comparison from two eyes
parallax and optic flow: involve pattern of motion in the retinal image
convergence angle: arise from positions of the eyes in viewing |
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Term
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Definition
| distance cue that takes adv of the fact that parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance and objects cast smaller images if they are further away from the viewer |
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Definition
| view of active perception, perceiver categorizes and interprets incoming info, view that some important aspects of perception and other cognitive processes are innate |
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Term
| immanuel kant on nativism |
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Definition
| perception only possible cuz mind able to organize sensory info into preexisting categories, also said have innate grasp of spation relationships (next to/far from) and temporal relationships (before/after) |
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Term
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Definition
| an approach to understanding perception that relates the characteristics of physical stimuli to attributes of the sensory experience they produce |
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Term
| can you compare sensory experience and actual subjects? |
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Definition
| no, like apples and oranges, but can compare within each group: difference threshold, just-noticeable difference, weber's law, fechner's law, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
| the smallest stimulus change that the observer can reliably detect |
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Term
| just-noticeable difference |
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Definition
| the smalles possible difference between two stimuli that an organism can reliably detect |
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Term
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Definition
| a proportional different of difference threshold over number of things viewed (change in I divided by I = C) where I is the intensity of the standard stimulus (the one to which comparisons are being made), change in I is the amount that must be added to this intensity in order to produce a just-noticeable increase, C is a constant |
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Term
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Definition
| used to compare psychological intensity of a sensory experience and physical intensity of a stimulus (S=k logI) where S is psychological magnitude, I is the phyusical intensity of the stimulus, and k is a constant whose value depends on the Weber fraction |
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Term
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Definition
| an organism's ability to detect a stimulus (or a difference among stimuli), measured separately from organism's decision criterion |
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Term
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Definition
| an individule's rule for how much evidence they need before making a response |
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Term
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Definition
| theory that the act of perceiving or not perceiving a stimulus is actually a judgment about whether a momentary sensory experience is due to background noise alone or to the background noise plus a signal - also includes procedure for measuring sensory sensitivity |
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Term
| 4 responses in signal-detection theory |
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Definition
hit: participant saying they detected stimulus when there really was one
correct negative: saying 'no target' when there really wasn't one
miss: saying 'no target' when there really was one
false alarm: saying there was a stimulus when there really wasn't |
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Term
| a lower cutoff in criterion leads to more _____ |
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Definition
| more false alarms but less misses |
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Term
| a higher cutoff in criterion leads to _____ |
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Definition
| more misses and less false alarms |
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Term
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Definition
| the minimal sensory input that can be detected at all |
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Term
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Definition
| an addition to the five senses, a collective term used for info that comes from the receptors in the muscles and joints taht informs us about our movements and the orientation of our body in space |
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Term
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Definition
| an addition to the five senses, receptors in the inner ear and signal movements of the head |
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Term
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Definition
| addition to the five senses, four different skin receptors that give rise to sensations of pressure, warmth, cold and pain |
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Term
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Definition
| process by which a physical stimulus must be converted into a neural signal - accomplished by receptor cells |
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Term
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Definition
| process through which the nervous system represents the qualities of the incoming stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| aspect of sensory coding, difference between loud noise and soft noise or subtle scent of lavender and dense cloud of lavender - in most cases intensity is coded via the rate of firing by neurons in a sensory system |
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Term
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Definition
| another aspect of coding, difference in teh neural code that tells us we are seeing the flower rather than touching or smelling it - based on which nerves are stimulated (why pressure on eyeballs leads to seeing stars) |
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Term
| doctrine of specific nerve energies |
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Definition
| differences in sensory quality are not caused by differences in the stimuli themselves but by the different neurons structures that these stimuli excite |
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Term
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Definition
| says differences in sensory qualities (sour vs. sweet) are signaled by different neurons just as the different sense modalities are signaled by different nerves (red neurons, hot neurons) |
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Term
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Definition
| usually applies better than specificity theory, says what matters is not which neurons are firing because virtually all neurons for a sensory modality respond to virtually all inputs, rather the pattern of activation, which neurons are firing more or less at any given time is key |
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Term
| most cortical space dedicated to which senses |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| comes from movement that jostles air particles by about 1 billionth a centimeter and particles return to original position after a few seconds, if this movement continues, it will create a series of pressure vibrations in the air (sound waves) which hit our ears and initiate changes that trigger auditory receptors which trigger neural responses |
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Term
| sound waves and sine waves |
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Definition
| both have amplitude = amount of pressure exerted by each air particle on the next = maximum pressure achieved; wavelength = measure of how many seconds ellapse between crests; frequency = crests per second (inverse of wavelength) |
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Term
| amplitude and frequency in common terms |
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Definition
| amplitude is loudness, frequency is pitch |
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Term
| what sound is measured in and why |
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Definition
| decibels because the range of amps humans can hear is huge; senses are logarithmic scales (psychologically perceived loudness doubles each time the intensity of a sound increases by 10 decibels) |
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Term
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Definition
| measurement in the frequency, as frequency increases subjective pitch increases, generally a doubling of frequency produces and experienced pitch difference of 1 octave |
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Term
| waves ear hears and how they are analyzed |
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Definition
| ear hears complex waves and analyzes them to detect component waves, if a sound is made up of a large enough number of elements, it is perceived as noise which we cannot analyze |
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Term
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Definition
| coiled structure in the inner ear that contains the basilar membrane where deformation by sound-produced pressure stimulates teh auditory receptors |
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Term
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Definition
| portion of the structure of the ear that includes the earflap, the auditory canal, and the outer surface of the eardrum - directs sound toward eardrum through auditory canal |
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Term
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Definition
| taut membrane that transmits vibrations caused by sound waves across the middle ear to the inner ear |
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Term
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Definition
| tube that carries sound from the outer ear to the eardrum, eardrum vibrates and vibrations transmitted to the oval window (the membrane that separates the middle ear fromt eh inner ear) |
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Term
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Definition
| an antechamber to the inner ear which amplifies the sound produced vibrations of the eardrum and transfers them into the cochlea |
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Term
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Definition
| the portion of the ear in which the actual transduciton of sound takes place |
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Term
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Definition
| are what transmits vibrations from eardrum to oval window, the three tiny bones of the middle ear that transmit vibrations from the eardrum to the oval window, first ossicle moves which moves 2nd which moves 3rd |
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Term
| movement of the oval window leads to ____ |
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Definition
| waves in the fluid that fills the cochlea which leads to a response by receptors; so many processes because amplification is key |
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Term
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Definition
| structure in the cochlea whose deformation by sound-produced pressure stimulates the auditory receptors |
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Term
| actual receptors for hearing |
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Definition
| hair cells, lodged between the basilar membrane and other membranes above |
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Term
| basilar membrane vibration and frequency |
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Definition
| higher frequencies when the region of greatest vibration is close to the oval window and lower frequencies when close to cochlear tip |
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Term
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Definition
| asserts that the nervous system is able to identify a sound's pitch by simply keeping track of where the movement is greatest along the length of the basilar membrane |
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Term
| critiques of place theory |
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Definition
| as frequency gets lower, pattern of movement gets broader, frequencies below 50 hertz produces stimulus that deforms basilar membrane equally but people can discriminate sound as low as 20 hertz |
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Term
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Definition
| for lower frequencies, frequency of a stimulus seems to be directly translated into the appropriate number of neural impulses per second, info relayed to higher neural centers that interpret this info as pitch |
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Term
| place theory and frequency theory together |
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Definition
| higher frequencies coded with place theory and lower frequencies coded with frequency, in the middle range both operate |
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Term
| where signal goes from cochlea |
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Definition
| goes to midbrain to geniculate nucleus in the thalamus, others go on to primary projection areas for hearing in cortex of temporal lobe; signals analyzed for timbre (sound quality that distinguishes different sounds) and tracked across time to evaluate patterns |
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Term
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Definition
| the process of determining where sound is coming from, compares data from each ear |
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Term
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Definition
| each neuron has a preferred pitch that it responds more vigorously to |
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Term
| how does light travel? what do the features of this form mean in terms of perception? |
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Definition
| in waves, amplitude= determinant of perceived brightness, frequency not used because light travels so fast, wavelength= determines color of light |
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Term
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Definition
| cells that do actual detection of light in vertebrates, located on retina |
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Term
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Definition
| layer of tissue lining back of eyeball, contains photoreceptors, several layers of intermediate neurons, adn the cell bodies of the axons that form the optic nerve |
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Term
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Definition
| the image of an object that is projected on to retina, size increases with size of object and decreases with distance from eye |
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Term
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Definition
| eye's outer coating that focuses incoming light, fixed in shape but bends light so there will be proper focus |
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Term
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Definition
| focuses incoming light, does fine-tuning of image as teh band of muscles that surround the lens adjusts - tightening leads to the lens bulging outwards to focus images of nearby objects, and loosening leads to flatter shape for focusing on far objects |
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Term
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Definition
| smooth, circular muscle that surrounds the pupillary opening and contracts or dilates under reflex control as the amount of illumination changes |
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Term
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Definition
| one type of receptor cell in the retina, photoreceptors in the retina that respond to lower intensities and give rise to colorless (achromatic) sensations, not present in fovea, but more present on periphery, have many, many more rods than cones |
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Term
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Definition
| one of two types of receptor cells in the retina, visual receptors taht respond to greater light intensities and give rise to chromatic (color) sensations, plentiful in fovea, less present as move away from fovea |
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Term
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Definition
| small, circular region at center of retina, area of retina on which an image falls when the viewer is looking directing at the source of the image, acuity is greater when images falls on the fovea than it is when it falls on any other portion of the retina |
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Term
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Definition
| info from rods and cones goes to these, intermediate neural cells in teh eye that are stimulaed by receptors and stimulate the ganglion cells |
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Term
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Definition
| cells that collect info from all over retina and its axons converge to form bundles of fibers called optic nerve |
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Term
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Definition
| axons of ganglion cells converge to form this, proceeds from eyeball to brain going to thalamus |
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Term
| lateral geniculate nucleus |
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Definition
| way station for info on optic nerve in thalamus, info then goes to visual cortex in the occipital lobe |
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Term
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Definition
| region of eye where there is an exit for axons of ganglion cells so no rods or cones so completely insensitive to light |
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Term
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Definition
| rods and cones handle different aspects of vision: rods are receptors for night vision, operation at low intensities, and lead to anachromatic sensations; cones do day vision, operate at high intensities, and lead to color vision |
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Term
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Definition
| ability to perceive detail, greater in cones because rods highly sensitive to light so less able to see detail, why we point our eyes toward what we want to see in detail, position image onto the fovea |
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Term
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Definition
| chemical sensitive to light in each photoreceptor (in rods and cones), also the pigment that allows transduction of light into a neural signal |
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Term
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Definition
| photopigment in rods, break down easily in light |
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Term
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Definition
| 3, don't break down easily in light, key to color vision |
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Term
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Definition
| perceiver's tendency to exaggerate the physical difference in the light intensities of two adjacent regions, important adaptively cuz knowing boundaries of objects is key |
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Term
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Definition
| bands of gray from dark to light that appear as a gradient even within band, produced by contrast FX |
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Term
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Definition
| activity in one region tends to inhibit responding in the adjacent region |
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Term
| two effects from stimulation of photoreceptors |
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Definition
| 1) excited photoreceptor transmits excitation to other cells that relay signal to brain, 2) lateral cells make contact with neighbor sells and inhibit their activation |
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Term
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Definition
| cells detecting the edge of a surface produce a stronger response, cells in center have of less-bright patch have strongest response which leads to exaggeration of edges as the weakest firing comes from edge of dark patch |
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Term
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Definition
| a perceived dimension of visual stimuli whose meaning is close to the term color (red, blue, purple), varies with wavelength |
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Term
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Definition
| the dimension of color that differentiates black (low brightness) from white (high brightness), with various shades of gray in between |
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Term
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Definition
| "purity" of color, extent to which it is chromatic rather than achromatic |
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Term
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Definition
| principle underlying color vision, color vision occurs through operation of three sets of cones with each maximally sensitive to a different wavelength of light (1 for short, med, and long) |
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Term
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Definition
| stimulation by red light strongly activations long-preferring receptors and only weakly activates the other two receptors, opposite is true when stimulated by blue light, green stimulation activates medium-preferring receptors; each of three receptor types gives rise to experience of one basic color (red, blue, green) |
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Term
| simultaneous color contrast |
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Definition
| chromatic counterpart of brightness contrast, a process through which the nervous system (or a perceiver) seeks a response or an interpretation of the input that (a) fits with several requiresments, but which seeks this response or interpretation by (b) being influenced by all the requirements at the same time, rather than considering them one by one; young-helmholtz theory does not explain this |
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Term
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Definition
| any chromatic region in the visual field tends to induce a complementary color in adjoining areas |
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Term
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Definition
| persistance of an image that posses the huge complementary to that of the stimulus resulting from the operation of opponent processes |
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Term
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Definition
| in light: additive mixing; mixing of pigment: subtractive mixing (when blue light shines on white surface, wavelengths from lights all reflected back, but with pigments, all absorbed but the one color's wavelength |
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Term
| opponent-process theory of color |
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Definition
| we have three cones but th eoutput from these cones is processed by a layer of neural mechanisms that recede the signal to terms of pairs of color: red/green, blue/yellow, black/white - pairs are said to involve an "opponent process" because the two members of each pair are antagonists: excitation of one automatically inhibits the other |
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Term
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Definition
| some involve defective opponent process, some involve malfunctions |
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Term
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Definition
| unable to discriminate among shapes or forms |
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Term
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Definition
| cells that respond to linear edge of a particular orientation but are indifferent to thing's specific location in the visual field - other cells assemble elements to detect larger configurations, some detectors are specific for detecting hands or faces |
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Term
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Definition
| features of the stimulus situation that indicate how far an object is from observer and other objects |
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Term
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Definition
| difference between two eyes' view which leads to view of depth |
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Term
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Definition
| cues for depth dependent on what one eye sees |
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Term
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Definition
| cue that things blocking other things are closer, monocular distance cue |
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Term
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Definition
| monocular distance cue that objects appear smaller if viewed from a distance and that parallel lines seem to converge as they recede into depth |
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Term
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Definition
| far-off objects produce a smaller retinal image than nearby objects of the same size |
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Term
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Definition
| cue based on changes in surface texture that depend on how far away the observer is |
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Term
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Definition
| cue where as an observer moves, the images cast by nearby objects more more rapidly on the retina than the images cast by objects farther away, also pionts closer to us then the target of our gaze appear to be moving in opposite direction of our own while points farther away appear to be moving in same direction |
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Term
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Definition
| phenomenon where as an objects' retinal image enlarges as we approach the object and shrinks as we retreat from it |
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Term
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Definition
| we see objects move because they move across retina, cells responsive to this movement fire if a stimulus moves across a receptive field in certain way |
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Term
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Definition
| perception of movement produced by stimuli that are stationary but flash on and off at appropriate positions and time intervals |
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Term
| why doesn't whole world appear to move when eyes move? |
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Definition
| maybe because voluntary eye movement plus brain compensating by canceling out movement in interpreting visual input |
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Term
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Definition
| perceived movement of an objectively stationary stimulus that is enclose by a moving framework (ex: movement of moon in sky) |
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Term
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Definition
| participants indicate whether a shape is present in a display |
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Term
| importance of organization in perception |
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Definition
| the catalog of features present in a form is not just determined by the form itself- the catalog of features that we perceive is dependent on on how we interpret the form |
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Term
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Definition
| a theoretical approach that emphasizes the role of organized wholes in perception and other psychological processes; how a form is perceived depends on organization of the entire pattern (an intact gestault [organized whole] is different from the sum of its parts) |
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Term
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Definition
| process of grouping various visual elements of a scene appropriately, deciding which elements go together adn which do not |
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Term
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Definition
| a process of segregating the scene into its constituent objects |
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Term
| what concepts do we group by in perception |
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Definition
| tend to group according to principle of similarity and proximity, also organize to favor contours that continue smoothly along original course (priciple of good continuation) |
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Term
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Definition
| perceived contours that do not exist physically, we tend to complete figures that have gaps in them by perceiving a contour as continuing along its original path |
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Term
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Definition
| visual patterns that easily allow more than one interpretation, including figures that allow parsing such that what is initially figure becomes ground and vice versa |
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Term
| classical approach to perception |
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Definition
| we can seek in a general way to describe the broad characteristics of the processes needed for perception |
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Term
| process-model approach to perception |
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Definition
| a more finely grained approach that tells us about the step-by-step processes that make perception possible |
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Term
| neuroscience approach to perception |
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Definition
| explains how the processes of perception are actually realized within the nervous system |
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Term
| perceiving constancy as a part of the classical approach to perception |
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Definition
| perceptual constancy (constant attributes of distal object that we are able to perceive despite vagaries of the proximal stimulus); size constancy, shape constancy, brightness constancy, position constancy |
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Term
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Definition
| part of classical approach to perception; unchanging stimulus patterns that involve the relationship between the size or shape of the retinal image and other attributes of the stimulus - size and shape of image isn't important - it's the contextual info combined with this knowledge |
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Term
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Definition
| a process postulated by Helmholtz to explain certain perceptual phenomena such as size constancy. for example, an object is perceived to be at a certain distance and this is unconsciously taken into account in assessing its retinal image sized with the result that size constancy is maintained |
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Term
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Definition
| partof process-model approach to perception; a model of pattern recognition in which there is a network of detectors with featrure dectors at the bottom; could be top down or bottom up (could start with small components or recognition that starts with large components) |
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Term
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Definition
| results showing the accuracy of efficiency of perception are increased if perceiver is somehow prepared for the upcoming stimulus |
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Term
| simultaneous multiple-constraint satisfaction |
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Definition
| part of process-model approach to perception; a process through which the nervous system or a perceiver seeks a response or an interpretaion of the input that (a) fits with several requirements but which seeks this response or interpretation by (b) being influenced by all the requirements at the same time rather than considering them one by one |
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Term
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Definition
| a process that takes a very short time but longer than the time the eye stays looking at one target (eye changes target 4 or 5 times a second), so visual systems neural response to a stimulus begins when the stimulus arrives but does not shutt off immediately when stimulus vanishes from view - like with hearing when we say "what did you say?" when we realized we already know |
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Term
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Definition
| primitive geometric figures (cubes, cylinders, pyramids, etc.) from which all otehr shapes are created through combination. In many models of pattern recognition, the organism must first determine which geons are present and then determine what the objects are |
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Term
| 2 categories of ganglion cells |
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Definition
| parvo cells: smaller and higher in number that blanket entire retina, sensitive to color differences; mango cells: larger and fewer numbers, in retina's periphery play a role in perception of pattern and form, color blind, respond to changes in brightness, role in detection of motion and perception of depth |
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Term
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Definition
| part of the neuroscience approach to perception; processing occurs simultaneously, quicker and lets info influence other info, brain analyzes features at same time as analyzing large-scale configuration |
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Term
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Definition
| pathway that carries info to the temporal cortex, plays a role in identification of visual objects, might be more associated with conscous sense of world |
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Term
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Definition
| carries info to the parietal cortex, tells where an object is located, might primarily involve the control of our movements |
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Term
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Definition
| how the nervous system manages to bind togetehr elements that were initially detected by separate systems - solution is maybe that brain encodes infoas parts of an object by means of neural synchrony (firing in synchrony; attention key |
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Term
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Definition
| tendency of an organism to shift attention and sensory surfaces to inspect a novel or unexpected stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| a pattern of errors found, for ex., in visual search tasks, in which observers correctly perceive teh features present but imsperceive how these were combined in teh display |
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Term
| similarities in perception with all senses |
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Definition
| all influenced by contrast effects |
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Term
| similarities between vision and hearing |
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Definition
| sound begins with analysis of input's features but supplements with knowledge-driven effects like vision; parsing occurs too (must decide where sound breaks) like vision; requires grouping together in both; priming occurs |
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Term
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Definition
| refers to the decline in an organisms resonse to a stimulus once the stimulus has become familiar, maybe simplest form of learning, shared across species |
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Term
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Definition
| an increase in responsiveness caused by presentation of something novel |
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Term
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Definition
| a form of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus, the conditioned stimulus, is paired paired with an unconditioned stimulus regardless of what the animal does. in effect, what has to be learned is the relation between these two stimulu |
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Term
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Definition
| a product of the organism's biology and is triggered by the unconditioned stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| the stimulus that elicits the unconditioned response and the presentation of which acts as reinforcement |
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Term
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Definition
| a response elicited by some initialy neutral stimulus, the conditioned stimulus, as a result of pairings between the conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus, this conditioned response is typically not identical to the unconditioned response though it is similar |
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Term
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Definition
| the stimulus which comes to elicit a new response by virtue of pairings with the unconditioned stimulus |
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Term
| second-order conditioning |
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Definition
| a form of learning in which a stimulus is first made meaningful or consequential for an organism through an initial step of learning, and then that stimulus is used as a basis for learning about some new stimulus. |
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Term
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Definition
| the weakening of the tendency of the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response by unreinforced presentations of the conditioned stimulus. In instrumental conditioning, a decline in the tendency to perform the instrumental response brought about by unreinforced occurences of that response. |
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Term
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Definition
| the presentation of further reinforced conditioning trials after a conditioned stimulus has been extinguished, quicker than original conditioning - sow when extinction happens, animal retains some memory of the learning |
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Term
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Definition
| the reappearance of a previously extinguished response after a time interval in which neither the conditioned stimulus nor the unconditioned stimulus is presented - extinction procedure + rest period + CS = conditioned response |
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Term
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Definition
| animals respond to a range of stimuli provided they are suficiently similar to the original CS, the greater the similarity between CS and new stimulus (CS+), the greater the generalization |
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Term
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Definition
| curve that shows the relationship between the tendency to respond to a new stimulus and its similarity to the original CS |
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Term
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Definition
| a process of learning to respond to certain stimuli that are reinforced and not to others that are unreinforced; animal learns that CS- (the new stimulus that is sort of like the old CS) is not what is being reinforced - learns to associate CS- with no CS |
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Term
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Definition
| best when CS precedes US by some optimum interval |
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Term
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Definition
| some say temporal contiguity (mere fact that CS and US occured tog in time) but this is wrong - many things are occurring at same time as presentation of US, is only effective if CS is informative about things to come (US) |
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Term
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Definition
| more likely to occur in its presence than its absence; ev that animals understand contingency - basically animals are calculating likelihood that some stimulus is going to be paired with a US, and if it is just as likely that the stimulus will occur without the US,then the animal does not fear the stimulus - here, animal learns to fear situation in general; Tie to Anxiety: anxiety greatest when chronic, objectless, occurs in many situations, absence of safety signal |
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Term
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Definition
| an effect produced when two conditioned stimuli, A and B, are both presented together wtih the US. If A has been associated with the US while B has not, the formation of an association between B and the US will be impaired. |
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Term
| conditioned emotional response (CER) |
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Definition
| a type of conditioned response that involves a complex set of behaviors characterizing fear. In many cases, the CER is measured by its capacity to interrupt other ongoing behaviors - animal conditioned to do one thing but then a CS and a shock are presented, measure of how long animal stops doing other thing because of fear of new CS is measure of the strength of the conditioning |
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Term
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Definition
| irrational fears, can be understood by classical conditioning, treated using procedure modeled after the extinction of a conditioned response |
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Term
| difference between UR and CR |
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Definition
| animal response usually treats CS as a signal that US is coming - Ex. if US is a shock and CS is light, UR is high heart rate, jump, squeal whereas CR is slowing heart rate, tensing of muscles |
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Term
|
Definition
| an internally produced response through which the body seeks to reduce the FX of some external influence by producing a reaction opposite in its characteristics to those of the external influence; way body often reacts to CS |
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Term
| instrumental conditioning/operant conditioning |
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Definition
| a form of learning in which a reinforcer is given only if teh animal performs the instrumental response. In effect, what has to be learned is the relationship between the response and the reinforcer. |
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Term
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Definition
| an apparatus used by psychs to demonstrate trial-and-error learning in cats. animals required to perform a simple action in order to escape the puzzle box and obtain food, no moment of insight shown, just slowly correct response is stamped in |
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Term
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Definition
| a theory that the tendency of a stimulus to evoke a respones is strengthened if the response is followed by reward and is weakened if the response is not followed by reward. Applied to instrumental learning, this theory states that as trials proceed, incorrect bonds will weaken while the correct bond will be strengthened. |
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Term
| difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning |
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Definition
| in CC, responses happen becasue of external trigger; in operant conditioning, response is voluntary |
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Term
|
Definition
| in skinner's system, an instrumental response, defined by the effect it has on the environment |
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Term
|
Definition
| the number of responses per unit time of an animal in a skinner box |
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Term
|
Definition
| a reward that follows a resonse by an orgnaism in instrumental conditioning, reinforcer is often the presentation of something good but may also be teh termination or preventation of something bad |
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Term
|
Definition
| in instrumental conditioning, the external stimuli that signal a particular relationship between the instrumental response adn the reinforcer; if green light is the positive discriminative stimulus (S+), hopping on the treadle will lead to the bird getting rewarded, wheras if red light is the negative discriminative stimulus (S-), hopping on the treadle will not result in reward |
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Term
| difference between CS+ and S+ |
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Definition
| CS+ tells that animal that no matter what you do, US is coming, S+ tells thae animal about the impact of its behavior at that moment (CS- tells animal no US is coming, S- tells animal no reward for this behavior) |
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Term
|
Definition
| an instrumental learning procedure in which an animal learns a rather difficult response thorugh the reinforcement of successive approximations to that response |
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Term
| successive approximations |
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Definition
| the process of shaping a resonse by rewarding closer an closer versions of teh desired response |
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Term
|
Definition
| stimuli that server as reinforcers because they are of immediate biological significance |
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Term
|
Definition
| an initially neutral stimulus that acquires reinforcing properties through pairing with another stimulus taht is already reinforcing |
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Term
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Definition
| a pattern of responding in which an orgnaism seems to evaluate a reward relative to toher rewards taht are available or that have been available recently |
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Term
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Definition
| motivation that seems inherent in an activity itself, as we engage in an activity for its own sake or merely becasue it's fun |
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Term
| overjustification effect and behavioral contrast |
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Definition
| kids don't like drawing second time because reward of drawing itself is now puny compared to previous reward |
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Term
| schedule of reinforcement |
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Definition
| the pattern of occasions on which responses are to be reinforced. commonly, reinforcement is scheduled after a stipulated number of responses occurs or when a response occurs after a present time interval has elapsed |
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Term
|
Definition
| a condition in which repeated responses are reinforced only some of the time |
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Term
|
Definition
| a pattern of reward in which an orgnaism can earn some reinforcement only by producing a certain number of responses |
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Term
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Definition
| a pattern of rewards where the ruses used varies from reward to reward. On a variable-ratio 5 schedule, reward will be available ON AVE after five responses |
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Term
|
Definition
| a pattern of rewards in which an orgnanism can earn some reinforcement only after a certain time period has elapsed. After the time period, the very next response will be rewarded. |
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Term
| variable-interval schedule |
|
Definition
| a pattern of rewards where the interval used varies from reward to reward. On a variable-interval 1 schedule, reward will be available on average after 1 minute |
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Term
| effectiveness of punishment |
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Definition
| more intense punishments are more effective; punishments introduced in mild form and then gradually intensified turn out to be markedly less effective than punishments that are introduced at full strength from the start |
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Term
|
Definition
| evidence for idea that learning is acquisition of new knowledge; learning that occurs without being manifested by performance |
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Term
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Definition
| mental represntation of spatial layout that indicates what is where and what leads to where; rats make them when exploring maze |
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Term
| act-outcome representation |
|
Definition
| a type of association hypothesized to be the product of instrumental learning; an organism that has acquired this sort of association has acquired the knowledge that a certain type of act leads to a particular outcome. |
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Term
| necessary characteristics of response for IC |
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Definition
| like in CC, response must be predictive of reward, must be more likely that animal will get a pellet with pushing lever than without |
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Term
|
Definition
| a condition created by expose to inescabale aversive events. This retards or prevents learning in subsequent situations in which escape or avoidance is possible; related to depression - when people feel powerless in life, it leads to depression |
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Term
| biological influences on learnin |
|
Definition
| each species seems predisposed to form certain associations |
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Term
|
Definition
| principles governing what each species can learn easily and what it cannot learn at all |
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Term
| belongingness in learning |
|
Definition
| teh fact that the ease with which associations are formed depends on the items to be associated. some cs/us combinations more effective than others, and some response/inforcer combos more effective [exp w/animal where CS=sweet water, light, clicking and US=illness or shock; animals tended to take the water part of CS as predictive of illness and the light/clicking as predictive of shock] |
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Term
|
Definition
| a specialized form of learning in which an organism learns to avoid a taste after just one pairing of that taste with an illness; one-trial learning (also, several hours may pass between CS and US) |
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Term
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Definition
| a mechanism of socialization whereby a child observes another person who serves as a model adn then proceeds to imitate what the model does |
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Term
|
Definition
| the surprsinginly complex process through which an orgnaism behaves in a fashion that is guided by the actions of another organism |
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Term
|
Definition
| the capacity for neurons to alter their functioning as a result of experience; key for learning |
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Term
| plasticity made possible by three types of changes: |
|
Definition
| learning can produce an increase in the neurotransmitter released by the presynaptic neuron so that a stronger is signal; can produce an increase in the sensitivity of the postsynapticd neuron; learning can lead to the creation of entirely new synapses |
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Term
|
Definition
| a form of cellular plasticity in which a post synaptic neuron becomes more sensitive to the signal received from the presynaptic neuron. this potentiation is usually produced by a rapid and sustained burst of firing by the presynaptic neuron. the potentiation can then spread to other presynaptic neurons provided that they have fired in the past at the same time as the presynaptic dell that produced the potentiation in the first place |
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Term
|
Definition
| involves a decrease in a neuron's responsiveness caused by experience |
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Term
|
Definition
| degree to which scores in a frequency distribution depart from the central value |
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Term
|
Definition
| operation of assigning numbers to observed events |
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Term
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Definition
| a scale that divides responses into categories that are not numberically related |
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Term
|
Definition
| a scale where responses are rank-ordered by relative magnitude but where intervals between successive ranks are not necessarily equal |
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Term
|
Definition
| a scale in which equal differences between scores can be treated as equal |
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Term
|
Definition
| an interval scale where there is a true zero point allowing statements about proportions |
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Term
|
Definition
| a frequency distribution expressed graphically |
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Term
| measure of central tendency |
|
Definition
| a single number that summarizes entire distribution of results: mean, median, mode |
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Term
|
Definition
| describes distributions of data that are assymetrical |
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Term
|
Definition
| describes data where deviations from the mean in either direction are equally frequent |
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Term
|
Definition
| shows variability, highest score minus lowest score |
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Term
|
Definition
| sum of scores minus mean squared divided by the number of scores; measure of variability of a frequency disttribution |
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Term
|
Definition
| the square root of variance; |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| turns scores of different things into comparable terms, indicates the percent of all scores that lie below that given score |
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|
Term
| standard scores (z-scores) |
|
Definition
| a score expressed as a deviation from the mean in standard deviations, which allows comparison of scroes from different distributions (score - mean)/SD |
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Term
|
Definition
| symmetrical distribution with most scores in middle where mean is roughly median, frequency distribution of many physical and psychological attributes; % of a scores that fall between mean and +1 SD = 34%; distribution like this when a given variable is the sum of many smaller variables |
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Term
|
Definition
| a number that expresses the strength and direction of teh correlation, largest possible value = +1 |
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Term
|
Definition
| the hypothesis that there really is no systematic difference between the particular observation we are interested in and other observations we have made on other occasions and with other individuals; hypothesis that obtained difference is a chance fluctuation from a population in which teh true mean difference is zero |
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Term
|
Definition
| a score, usually z-score, that determines whether an investigator will accept or reject null hypothesis. if score is greater than the critical ratio, null hypothesis is rejected |
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Term
|
Definition
| degree to which observed difference reflects real difference and not chance |
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Term
|
Definition
| the standard deviation of a distribution of sample means |
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Term
|
Definition
| an interval around a sample mean within which the population mean is likely to fall - usually 2 SE's above or below mean |
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Term
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Definition
| process of gaining new knowledge, establishing new memories in long-term storage |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| takes place wihtout intention to learn |
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Term
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Definition
| a process of translating info into format in which it can be stored for later use |
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Term
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Definition
| several types of memory and acquisition is a process of moving memories from temporary storage to more permanent storage, 1 store is short-term (working) which holds for short invervals, another is long-term - something must be in short-term before it can be in long-term |
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Term
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Definition
| memory thod holds info you are working on right now, memory stystem currently activated but has relatively little cognitive capacity, can't have too much or will lose track |
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Term
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Definition
| huge reposity that contains everything you know, dormat storage for info you will need later |
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Term
|
Definition
| amount of info that can be redtained in memory; for long-term - huge; for working- 7 plus or minus 2 (magic number) things tested by memory span (# of things that can be recalled after a single presentation) |
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Term
|
Definition
| repetition to keep material in working memory |
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Term
|
Definition
| rehearsal where material is actively reorganized and elaborated while in working memory (good for long-term retention) |
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Term
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Definition
| words presented at beginning of list are more likely to be remembered; cuz of time for rehearsal |
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Term
|
Definition
| words at the end of a list are more likely to be remembered; cuz still in working memory |
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Term
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Definition
| process of reorganizing material in memory that permits number of items to be repacked into larger units |
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Term
|
Definition
| maybe translation from short to long term memory takes time so must keep in working memory; but ev shows that doesn't always get it into long-term memory |
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Term
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Definition
| the encoding of a stimulus using its superficial characteristics, such as the way a word sounds or the type face in which it is printed |
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Term
|
Definition
| encoding that emphasizes the meaning of material |
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Term
| depth-of-processing hypothesis |
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Definition
| a theory of memory that stresses the nature of encoding at the time of acquisition. it argues that deeper levels of processing lead to better retention and retrieval than shallower levels of processing. thus, maintenance rehearsal leads to much poorer retrieval than elaborative rehearsal |
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Term
| why does paying attention to meaning help? |
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Definition
| isn't about noting meaning, it's about understanding; when we understand how things are related we make connections, these connections might be the retrieval paths used |
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Term
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Definition
| teh mental connections linking one idea to the next that one uses in locating a bit of information in memory |
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Term
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Definition
| deliberate strategies for helping memory, many of which use imagery |
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Term
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Definition
| learner visualizes items to remember in a different spatial location (locus) - in recall, each location is inspected and item placed in each location is retrieved |
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Term
|
Definition
| the "record" in long-term memory, record in nervous system that actually preserves a memory of a past experience; not created immediately; made by neural plasticity |
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Term
|
Definition
| process spread over several hours in which memories are transformed from a transient/fragile status to a more permanent status; requires creation of new proteins - eve in retrograde amnesia (memory loss for events prior to injury) cuz recent memories haven't had time to consolidate |
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Term
|
Definition
| a stimulus that helps one to recall a memory |
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Term
| what makes a retrieval cue good? |
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Definition
| if it recreates the situation of original learning is one answer |
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Term
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Definition
| a re-creation of the state of mind someone was in during learning, students who read articles in loud place did better testing in loud place; physical setting matters only indirectly - only helps if it recreates mental context |
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Term
|
Definition
| the hypothesis that retrieval is most likely if the context at the time of recall approximates that during the original encoding |
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Term
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Definition
| inadequate encoding, forgetting, intrustions and overwriting |
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Term
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Definition
| the time that elapses between the original learning adn a later test; as it grows, recall decreases adn forgetting increases |
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Term
|
Definition
| a curve showing the inverse relationsihp between memory and the retention interval, steep decline initially, but then gradual decrease |
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Term
| cause of forgetting curve |
|
Definition
| maybe normal metabolic processes wearing down the memory traceses |
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Term
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Definition
| the condition in which one remains on teh verge of retrieving a word or name but continues to be unsuccessful |
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Term
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Definition
| the result of a procedure in which people experience an even,t and then are later exposed to question or some overt suggestion that misrepresents teh event. The misinformation effect refers to the fact that people often remember the misinformation, rather than the original information |
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Term
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Definition
| memory mistakes in which someone remembers elements that did not actually occur as part of an earlier event; the other events intrude into memory |
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Term
|
Definition
| a new fictional memory overwrites an old one; happens because a network of connections makes it more difficult to remember if two things are associated because one was a part of another or because they were linked in the person's thoughts - experience episode connected to suggestion episode may be confused as one thing |
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Term
|
Definition
| a type of memory error in which info acquired in one context is remembered as having been encountered in another |
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Term
| intrusion error where we blur together recollection with our broader understanding |
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Definition
| use knowledge of how episodes of this type usually unfold in remembering memory - remember books in an office when there weren't any |
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Term
|
Definition
| mental representation that summarizes what we know about a certain event/situation/thing |
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Term
|
Definition
| a mistaken view of memory, the theory implies that memory operates just as a videorecorder does - with information initially "recorded" into memory just as a camera records info onto DVD, and where the info resides in dormant form until the moment of retrieval/"playback" |
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Term
| problems with videorecorder theory |
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Definition
| memory is selective, we don't record everything - only what we are paying attention to, loading stuff to memory is an active process, memory does not record a stimulus itself like a camera does - it records what a person thinks of the stimulus or their impressions of it, retrieval requires decisions and inferences |
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Term
|
Definition
| memory for specific events |
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Term
|
Definition
| memory for items of knowledge as sugh, independent of the occasion on which they are learned |
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Term
|
Definition
| memory retrieval in which there is awareness of remembering at the time of retrieval |
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Term
|
Definition
| memory retrieval in which there is not awareness of remembering at the time of retrieval |
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Term
|
Definition
| an increase in the likelihood that an item will be identified, recognized, or recalled caused by recent exposure too that item, which may occur without explicit awareness |
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Term
| fragment-completion tasks |
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Definition
| procedure for testing implicit memory, participant is given a fragment of a word and has to fill in missing letters to complete actual word, success much more likely if word has been encountered recently |
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Term
| repetition and view of correctness |
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Definition
| repetition leads to the view that something is correct even if told it is false in the repetitive encounters |
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Term
| differences between implicit and explicit memory |
|
Definition
| implicit memory when focusing on meaning does not lead to better recall, implicit memory is impacted by peripheral aspects of the stimulus like case or sound; associated with different parts of the brain |
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Term
|
Definition
| can result from stroke or physical trauma, inability to learn adn remember any info encountered after the injury with little effect on memory for infor before injury; implicit memory remains intact |
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Term
|
Definition
| a brain disorder characterized by serious memory disturbances, cause is extremem and chronic alcohol use and its association wth a type of malnutrition |
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Term
|
Definition
| knowing a thing, like a name or a fact |
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Term
|
Definition
| knowing hot to do something |
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Term
|
Definition
| emotional episodes are remembered more clearly, completely, and accurately; happens cuz mull over it, involves people or things we care about which leads to many connections, activation of amygdala leads to better consolidation |
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Term
|
Definition
| vivid, detailed memories, said to be produced by unexpected adn emotionally important events |
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Term
| top-down process and bottom-up process in memory |
|
Definition
| bottom-up: using cues or bits of knowledge to remember things; topdown: using knowledge to fill in gaps |
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Term
|
Definition
| mental activities we use whenever we try to solve a problem, judge teh truth of an assertion, or weigh the costs and benefits in an important decision |
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Term
|
Definition
| makes up our knowledge, internal symbols that stand for something but are not equivalent to it, such as internalized actions, images, or words |
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|
Term
| two types of representations: |
|
Definition
| analogical representation and symbolic representations |
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|
Term
| analogical representations |
|
Definition
| a representation that shares some of the physical characteristics of an object; for example, a picture of a mouse is an analogical representation because it looks like the small rodent it represents |
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Term
|
Definition
| a type of mental representation that does not correspond to the physical characteristics of that which it represents. Thus, the word "mouse" does not resemble the rodent it represents |
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Term
|
Definition
| analogical representations that reserve some of the characteristic attributes of our senses |
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Term
|
Definition
| the capactiy to form and use quasi-perceptual representations, often referred to as mental pictures in the absence of the relevent visual input; more common than audio imagery |
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Term
|
Definition
| used to study visual imagery; the process of "looking within" oneself where a person may try to observe or report on the contents of their mind |
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Term
|
Definition
| a task where person presented with rotated figure and must discern whether the figure is normal or mirror-reversed. Participants apparently must visuaize the figure rotated to an upright position before responding - test using response times |
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Term
|
Definition
| study where asked to visualize map of island and imagine dot zipping from place to place, time it took distance to travel is directly proportion to distance on island - just like if people scanning a visual map with their eyes |
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Term
| brain structure and mental visualization |
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Definition
| use same brain structure to examine a mental picture as do with an actual visual stimulus, people wtih lesions that disrupt vision also have trouble with visual imagery, |
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Term
| differences in interpreting mental image and real image |
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Definition
| if visualizing a picture that could be a duck or a rabbit, people are unable to see the other point of view even with coaxing, but when on paper, people can; an image is like a picture but it is already interpreted and organized |
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Term
|
Definition
| mental representations of the world around us that are produced during ordinary perceiving, already interpreted and organized |
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Term
|
Definition
| a class or category that subsumes a number of individual instances. an important way of relating concepts is through propositions, which make some assertion that relates a subject and a predicate (chickens lay eggs); concepts are building blocks of our symbolic knowledge |
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Term
|
Definition
| way of relating concepts, combing them into more complicated structures, makes some assertion that relates subject and predicate; can be true or false |
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Term
|
Definition
| the component of generic memory that concerns the meaning of words and concepts - a part of generic memory that includes entire vocab alone with pronunciations, relation to objects in real world, and way it's used in a sentence |
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Term
|
Definition
| theories of cognition orgnaization, esp. of semantic memory, which hold that items of info are represented by a system of nodes lined through associative connections |
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Term
|
Definition
| a point in a network at which a number of connections converge |
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Term
|
Definition
| connectors in memory that tie one memory or one concept to another; serve as retrieval paths but are also part of knowledge representation itself |
|
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Term
| what happens when thinking about something? |
|
Definition
| nodes are activated which spreads the activation - slower if weak association and activation will disipate as it spreads outward, so little or not activation will reach the nodes more distant from the activation's source |
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Term
|
Definition
| the enhanced performance on verbal tasks that occurs when the items being considered have similar meanings |
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Term
|
Definition
| trials in a signal detection experiement in which no signal is presented. these trials ensure that the observer is taking the task seriously adn truly trying to dtermine whether a signal is present or not |
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Term
|
Definition
| a model of cognitive organization, especiaally semantic memory, in which each concept is represented by a simple node, or more plausibly, a group of nodes |
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Term
| distributed representations |
|
Definition
| a model of cognitive organization, especially semantic memory, in which each concept is represented, not by a designated node or group of nodes, but by a widespread pattern of activation across the entire network; each node by itself does not represent anything |
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Term
|
Definition
| the status a person is in at the start of attempt towards solving a problem. in solving the problem, she hopes to move from this initial state to the problem's goal state. |
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Term
|
Definition
| the situation one is trying to reach or set up when solving a problem |
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Term
|
Definition
| problems for which the goal state is defined only in general terms, and for which the available steps in reaching that goal state are not specified |
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Term
|
Definition
| problems for which there is a clear-cut way of deciding whether solution is correct. this contrasts with ill-defined problems, for which iti is unclear what a correct solution might be |
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Term
|
Definition
| problem-solving strategy that shows that understand a problem requires more than just understand the goal, involves one's current position and resources being continually evaluated with respect to one's goal; replaces initial problem with a series of little problems |
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Term
|
Definition
| in a hierarchical organization, lower-level operations that function semiautonomously but are suvervised by higher-level ones; relying on subroutines is good because subroutines often well-practiced so person can focus on larger goal |
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Term
|
Definition
| ability to do a task without paying attention to it; key for solving larger problems; hard to turn off like in Stroop Effect |
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Term
|
Definition
| the predisposition to perceive, remember, or think of one thing rather than another; get caught up using one strategy which inhibits ability to think of a new one; overcome by working backward, using analogies |
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Term
|
Definition
| a reorganization of a problem that can facilitate its solution; a characteristic of creative thought |
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Term
|
Definition
| "aha" moment; occurs unexpectedly when person has been working for some time with little progress when not working on thing that needs solving |
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Term
|
Definition
| hypothetical process of continuing to work on a probelm unconsciously after one has ceased to work on that problem consciously; skepticism about this, report bias may be why we think this happens |
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Term
|
Definition
| the determination of the conclusions that can be drawn from certain premises |
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Term
|
Definition
| a process that leads one from individual observations to more general claims -trying to make general rule out of specifics |
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Term
|
Definition
| reasoning in which one tries to determine whether some statement follows logically from certain premises, as in the analysis of sylogisms. this is in contrast with inductive reasoning in which one observes a number of particular instances and tries to determine a general rule that covers them all. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| a simple argument that contains two premises and a conclusion and question is whether the conclusion follows logically; people are more likely to accept conclusion if the conclusion alone is probably |
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Term
|
Definition
| statements "if/then" form, called conditional becasue "if" clasue states condition under which the "then" clause is guaranteed to be true |
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Term
|
Definition
| a commonly used research task in which participants must decide which cards to turn over in order to determine if a rule has been followed or not |
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Term
| differences between inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning |
|
Definition
| inductive reasoning is probably true, based on frequency estimates; deductive reasoning guaranteed to be true if logical premises are true |
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Term
|
Definition
| a rule of thumb often used to make probability estimates, which depends on teh frequency with which certain events readily come to mind. this can lead to errors, since, for example, very vivid events will be remembered out of proportion to their actual frequency of occurence |
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Term
|
Definition
| strategies/procedures guaranteed to solve a problem if solution is possible |
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Term
|
Definition
| strategies that usually bring the right answer at that are relatively efficient |
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|
Term
| representativeness heuristic |
|
Definition
| a rule of thumb by means of which we estimate the probability that an object belongs to a certain category based on how prototypical it is of that category, regardless of how common it actually is |
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Term
|
Definition
| the tendency to seek evidence to support one's hypothesis rather than to look for evidence that will undermine the hypothesis |
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Term
|
Definition
| the proposal that thinking often relies on a fast, efficient, effortless set of strategies, but also sometimes relies on a slower, more laborious but less risky set of strategies; maybe use first system for unimportant decisions and system 2 for high stakes decisions; more likely to use 1 when asked about probability and 2 when asked about frequency |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| a heuristic that affects the subjective desirability of an event by changing the standard or reference for judging the desirability |
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Term
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Definition
| a strong tendency to regard losses as considerably more important than gains of comparable magnitude, and, with this, a tendency to take steps to avoid possible losses |
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Term
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Definition
| happens with damage to prefrontal cortex; relying on habitual responses even if those responses will nto move the person toward his assigned goal in a particular task |
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Term
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Definition
| strong tendency to produce the same response over and over, even when it is plain that task requires a change in the response; cuz of prefrontal cortex lesions |
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Term
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Definition
| people don't think they can see, they don't respond to stimuli, but actually can when asked to guess - due to damage in occipital cortex |
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Term
| problems of unconscious processing |
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Definition
| fast and efficient, but inflexible |
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Term
| neural correlates of consciousness |
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Definition
| changes in teh brain's state that arise when someone is, for ex., consciously thinking about the sound of a trumpet |
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Term
| neuronal workspace hypothesis |
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Definition
| a broad hypothesis about the neural basis of consciousness. according to this hypothesis, the processing of specifica aspects of a stimulus or task can be done by neurons; pjarts of brain specialize - "work space neurons" connect the ares of the brain - allows integration of brain's various activities |
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Term
| what does integration of brain's activities do for us? |
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Definition
| helps us undrstand why our conscious experience feels unitary, workspace allows us to maintain a mental representation in a n active state for an extended period of time, brain can compare what is goin gon in one neural system with what is going on in others |
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Term
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Definition
| bottom units which combine to form higher level categories |
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Term
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Definition
| the smallest significant unit of meaning in a language, sounds combine to form morphemes and words |
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Term
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Definition
| formed by morphemes and words, an organeized sequence of words within a sentence that functions as a unit |
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Term
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Definition
| formed by phrases, a sequence of words constructed in accord with the rules of syntax. sentences do not have to be meaningful. |
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Term
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Definition
| the smallest significant unit of sound in a language, in english it corresponds roughly to the letter of the alphabet |
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Term
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Definition
| the pattern of timing in the delivery of a stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| accent or emphasis on a part of a word |
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Term
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Definition
| a difference in pitch used in some languages, to signal difference in meaning |
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Term
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Definition
| different patterns of how phonemes can occur within these in languages, a grouping of phonemes such taht phonemes can be pronounced as a unit |
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Term
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Definition
| morphemes that carry the main burden of the meaning |
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Term
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Definition
| words or parts of words that help specify the relations among words. |
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Term
| differences between kinds of morphemes |
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Definition
| pronounced differently, in brain damage some people lose the ability to process function morphemes but not content or vice versa; processed in different ways during normal language activities |
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Term
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Definition
| a diagram used for diagramming sentences; shows the hierarchical structure of a sentence |
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Term
| definitional theory of word meaning |
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Definition
| the theory that our mental representation of word meaning is made up of a small number of simpler concepts. the representation of bachelor, for ex. is made up of "adult," "unmarried," "male" |
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Term
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Definition
| the smallest significant unit of meaning within a word (e.g. "male," "human," "adult" are semantic features of "man") |
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Term
| problem with definitional theory of word meaning |
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Definition
| hard to come up with definition that covers all uses of word, also some members of a meaning category seem to better exemplify the category than others |
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Term
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Definition
| the theory that concepts are formed around average or typical exemplars rather than lists of single attributes; still described with a list of features but it is not a necessary and sufficient set |
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Term
| family resemblance structure |
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Definition
| overlap of feature among members of a category such that no members of the category have all of the features but all members have some of them |
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Term
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Definition
| the typical example of a category |
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Term
| theories of words combined |
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Definition
| prototype theory explains why something is more representative of its category and definition view explains why thing fits in category |
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Term
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Definition
| the part that each word plays in the "who did what to whom" drama described be a sentence; one word takes the role of being the cause of the action, another, the source of the action |
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Term
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Definition
| indicators used by languages to relate a word and the "action" in the sentence, for ex., whether the word idientifies the source of the action, the receiver of the action, and so on. in most langs, these are function morphemes |
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Term
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Definition
| a term used to describe sentence that initially lead the listener toward one interpretation but then demand a different interpretation |
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Term
| social context and early language learning |
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Definition
| before 2, social context is key to guiding learning; learn name for something if adult says it while adult is looking at it |
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Term
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Definition
| infants ready for language at birth - in 2-day old baby, blood flow in left hemisphere increases when language is heard; by 4-days babies can differentiate between different languages (shown by sucking time w/habituation and dishabituation) |
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Term
| phonemes and baby hearing |
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Definition
| babies have to determine where a phoneme begins and ends, can do this by keeping track of which syllables occur next to each other at high frequency |
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Term
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Definition
| 10-20 months, earliest words are simple interactions with adults, names, simple pronouns, simple action verbs; lacking function words; at 12-16 months infants begin to search for absent objects hose name is mentioned; by 18 months able to use words in absence of their reference |
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Term
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Definition
| the basic term for something - not specific or general - learned first about an object |
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Term
| superordinates and subordinates |
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Definition
| more general and more specific terms respectively - learned after basic-level words |
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Term
| kids, naming, and meaning |
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Definition
| if kids are shown familiar objects and told they are blickets - they think all things made out of that material are blickets; when shown unfamiliar things - they think all things that shape are blickets |
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Term
| children learning language |
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Definition
| children do not learn language by memorization of sentences said to them, learn by extracting patterns that they apply; when first learn past tense kids do it correctly cuz memorize, then learn rule nad overgeneralize |
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Term
| overgeneralization errors |
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Definition
| a pattern of mistakes in which a person treats irregular cases as though they followed the rules |
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Term
| wild children and lang learning |
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Definition
| if found at 6, can be sent to school and learn language, if found at 14, unable to really learn language |
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Term
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Definition
| languages that do not include sound and rather include gestures; babble with their hands; pick up spontaneously from parents who speak it; use one word sounds as early as ordinary children |
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Term
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Definition
| would think that they would develop language slower but they don'; use words like "look" and "see" as early adn systematically as seeing children - difference in understanding "look" - "look up" means reach up |
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Term
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Definition
| damage in the brain's left hemisphere that can have devastating and highly specific impacts on speech and comprehension |
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Term
| specific language impairment |
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Definition
| an inherited syndrome where people are slow to learn language and throughout their lives have different understanding/producing many sentences - but mental capacities not disrupted |
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Term
| the critical period hypothesis |
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Definition
| the brain of the younch child is particularly well suited to the task of leanguage learning - as brain matures and critcal period draws to close later learning of first language and other languages becomes difficult |
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Term
| evidence for critical period hypothesis |
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Definition
| ppl do increasingly worse at recognizing nongrammatical sentences depending on time of exposure to English; 2nd language learned in a separate part of brain then first; even when a language is used for over 30 years one does not sound like fluent if learned when older than 17 |
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Term
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Definition
| language use is a wake of chunking which influences memory; information framing in languages influences our decisions; language can also influence our attitudes |
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Term
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Definition
| the proposal that the language one speaks determines both what and also how one thinks. in its strong form, this hypothesis indicates that people cannot think in ways not allowed or included with in their new language |
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Term
| flaw with whorfian hypothesis |
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Definition
| probably day-to-day activities in different cultures that creates the necessary differences in language |
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Term
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Definition
| the earliest stage in a developed animal, in humans, up to 8 weeks after conception |
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Term
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Definition
| two months after conception, cells have grown to 1 inch; 17 months after conception baby is 16 inches and has developed reflext patttern (cries, breathes, swallows) |
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Term
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Definition
| growth spurts starting at 2, 6, 10, 14 continuing for 2 years each, initially very rapid development; slow development is an advantage cuz allows longer time for learning |
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Term
| newborn sensorimotor capacities |
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Definition
| grasping so as to cling to our primate ancestor's backs; rooting reflex (when lightly couch cheek baby turns with mouth open and sucks on stimulus; but can differentiate sounds in pitch, prefer voice of mother, can discriminate brightness and color |
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Term
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Definition
| at 6 weeks, embryo has gonads (primary sex characteristics but not specific to any sex), once formed the gonads produce androgens and it is the presence of testosterone in the blood that steers fetal development towards male; for women, the lack of testosterone steers development |
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Term
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Definition
| a period in the development of an organism en it is particularly sensitive to certain environmental influences. Outside of this period, the same environmental influences have little effect. after embryonic development, this phenomenon is rarely all-or-none. |
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Term
| examples of sensitive periods |
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Definition
| rigid period in embryonic development where cells can become different things based on neighbors; babies attaching and acquisition of language are not rigid times |
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Term
| sensorimotor intelligence |
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Definition
| zero to two; consists mainly of sensations and motor impulses, with little in the way of internalized representations |
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Term
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Definition
| 2-7; here children come to represent actions and objects internally but cannot systematically manipulate these representations or relate them to each other. the child is therefore unable to conserve quantity across perceptual transformations and also is unable to take points of view other than his own. |
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Term
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Definition
| 7-11; here child has acquired mental operations that allow him to abstract some essential attributes of reality, such as number and substance; but these operations are as yet applicable only to concrete events and cannot be considered entirey in the abstract |
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Term
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Definition
| 11-->; here genuinely abstract mental operations (e.g. the ability to entertain hypothetical possibilities) can be undertaken |
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Term
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Definition
| the understanding that objects exist independent of our momentary sensory or motoric interactions with them, absent in sensorimotor stage; at 8 months child starts to look for hidden toy but if you hide new toy in old way child will look for old toy |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency of infants around 9 months to search for a hidden object by reaching for place A, where it was previously hidden, rather than a new place B, where it was hidden most recently while the child was watching |
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Term
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Definition
| process by means of with congnitive development proceeds, process whereby the environment is interpreted in therms of the schemas the child has atthe time; allow child to think of things as independent |
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Term
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Definition
| p process that leads to cognitive development, the way the child changes his schemas as he continues to interact with the environment |
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Term
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Definition
| these allow child to manipulate ideas according to stable set of rules - in preoperational period, operations very slowly emerging |
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Term
| examples of preoperational thought |
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Definition
| failure to conserve quanityt, mass, number; problems due to inability to interrelate different dimensions of the situation |
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Term
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Definition
| inability to see another person's point of view; part of preoperational period |
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Term
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Definition
| piaget underestimated babies; infants have concepts of space, objects, even esistance of other minds; effect of occlusion shows infants not surprised that a whole thing exists when it is partially concealed by something else; infants believed that partially occluded things that move together are whole; infants also surprised when an event seems contrary to fact (like to physical things occupying the same space); at 3 months infant thinks any physical contact provides support for an object, but by 6 months infants know that another object has to be appropriately positioned to provide support; also believed that infants do know that things continue to exist when out of view, they are just bad at searching; infants have concept of number; infants imitate faces; infants recognize that other people are living in same world in that they follow their mother's gaze; understand goal ev. by baby surprised when experimentor reaches for teddy after reaching for ball over and over |
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Term
| are there set stages in child development |
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Definition
| piaget argued there are; but ev. shows that there are precursors to stages in stages before |
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Term
| potential problems with piaget's tests |
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Definition
| kids appear to understand number but fail to conserve on tests; maybe because they are confused when experimentor asks them a second time - the kid thinks they were wrong the first so they change their answer |
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Term
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Definition
| a set of interrelated concepts used to try to make sense of our own mental processes and those of others, including the variation in beliefs and desires from one person to another (know that there are other people with own beliefs that may differ from ours adn that ppl have desires diff from ours); 2 year-olds have an early sense of this (know if someone wants a cookie they will look for one and be happy when they find one); 3 year olds seem to understand beliefs (if read scenario about where a boy thinks a puppy is, kid will say that boy will look in that place) |
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Term
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Definition
| 3 year olds may understand beliefs, but don't know where they came from - ev. by false-belief tests (teddy and boxes) |
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Term
| biological influence on cognitive development |
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Definition
| genetically alike people resemble each other in skills, when structures are damaged there are deficits, cognitive skills seen early in life: innate ability for learning language, innate skill for getting theory of mind, innate assumptions of continuity and cohesion for physical things when they move |
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Term
| different cultures and piaget's tests |
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Definition
| infants in other cultures seem to develop similarly - pass major landmarks at same time, but it is rare that people in cultures without formal education pass test of formal operation but they show complex thought; this is cuz our tests just work for Western culture cuz test assumes certain things are important which may not be in other culs and process of Western tests can be seen as insulting |
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Term
| zone of proximal development |
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Definition
| range of accomplishments that are beyond what the child could do on his or her own, but are possible if the child is given help or guidance; shown in different ways parents talk to kids |
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Term
| how does different ways parents talk to kids (diff in class and culture) affect development? |
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Definition
| caucasion americans talk to their kids about past more than asian adults which leads to forming of autobiographical recall before asian americans which leads to caucasian americans remembering childhood better; females remember past better becase of way adults talk to them |
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Term
| information-processing approach |
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Definition
| a pespective that seeks to explain some aspect of behavior by referring to the underyling capacities to remember, pay attention, solve problems, and so on |
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Term
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Definition
| a pattern in which someone recreates another person's behaviors after a delay - shows child's memory; child unable to report on things before had language ability which shows that language is key for more than talking; info about world tells child what is unusual and worth encoding |
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Term
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Definition
| general term for knowledge about knowledge - as in knowing that we do or do not remember something; children are not good at this |
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Term
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Definition
| a proposal offered to describe many aspects of child development, and also some aspects of brain functioning. in this proposal, many forces act on a system simultaneously, and the resulting behavior can be understood as a sum of this set of forces; ability, experience, inclination, environmental cues, constraints all pull child toward this or that adn final response is determined by the tugs; tugs can vary so behavior varies from situation to situation; eventually tugs settle into pattern which is relatively consisten for actions for a person; stages of development are differences in pulls |
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Term
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Definition
| a term used to describe a system that finds its own equilibrium state, its own balance amont diverse forces. to find this equillibrium, the system is simultaneously pulled or pushed by many forces adn so naturally finds teh position that represents balance point |
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Term
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Definition
| process of change and development that can be observed across the entire span of life, from prenatal development to death |
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Term
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Definition
| the ability, which is seen to decline with age, to deal with essentially new problems |
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Term
| crystallized intelligence |
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Definition
| the repertoire of info, cognitive skills, and strategies acquired by teh application of fluid intelligence to various fields. this is said to increase with age, in some cases into old age; big changed noticed from 60-80 rather than 20-40 because at later time period increases in crystallized intelligence make up for decreases in fluid |
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Term
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Definition
| big differences in how people age, but people age same in general; for some there is a big drop of in mental ability probably due to changes in blood flow, neuron anatomy, gradual death of neurons, education level, degree of stimulation |
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Term
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Definition
| a degenerative brain disorder characterized by memory loss followed by increasing disorientation and culminating in total physical and mental helplessness, one of the major sites of the first destruciotn is a pathway of acetylcholine - releasing cells leading from teh base of the forebrain to the cortex adn hippocampus |
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Term
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Definition
| working memory and episodic memory decrease with age, implicit memory and semantic memory show little decilne with age |
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Term
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Definition
| degree to wihc scores in a frequency distribution depart from the central value; only need mean and variability to describe a bell curve |
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Term
| covariation or correlation |
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Definition
| degree to which two measrues vary together or degree to which to measrues are independent of each other |
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Term
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Definition
| the consistency with which something measures what it is supposed to measure |
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Term
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Definition
| an assessment of whether a test is consistent in what it measure determinmed by asking if score on test is correlated with score on test from another occasion |
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Term
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Definition
| an assessment of whether a test is consisten in what is measures, determined by asking whether performance on one half of the test is correlated with perofmance on other half |
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Term
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Definition
| the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measrue |
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Term
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Definition
| one of the assessments of whether a test measures what it is supposed to measrue. this assessment asks broadly whether it maeks sense on reflectio, that the test is measuring what it is supposed to measrue |
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Term
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Definition
| this assessment seeks agreeement between the test being evaluated adn some other test designed to measrue roughly the same thing |
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Term
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Definition
| this assessment seeks a distinction between the test being evaluated and some other test designed to measrue different capacities or behaviors |
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Term
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Definition
| the assessment hinges on the correlation between the test score and some external criterion (e.g. a correlation between a scholistic aptitude test score and college grades) |
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Term
| definition of intelligence |
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Definition
| ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience |
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Term
| are IQ tests reliable and valid |
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Definition
| are reliable and measrue something that is permanent; +.50 correlation between IQ and subsequent measures of academic performance, IQ socres also predictive of job success but not with low complexity jobs; high IQ correlated with high SES, more money, higher prestige, longer life, no jail time, no car accidents, less difficulty following doctor's instructions |
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Term
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Definition
| an attempt to understand the nature of intelligence by studying the pattern of results obtained on intelligence tests - how people do on different tests might answer if multiple intelligences - if one person does same on all then there is only one intelligence |
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Term
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Definition
| statistical technique for studying the interrelations among various tests, the object of which is to discover what the tests have in common and whether these communalities can be ascribed to one or several factors taht run through all or some of these tests |
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Term
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Definition
| general intelligence; mental attribute called on for any intellectual task, high g = advantage in every intellectual endeavor; found using factor analysis |
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Term
| hierarchical model of intelligence |
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Definition
| not perfect correlation among subtests so maybe g is highest in a hierarchy; if high g, high success but better on some parts than others becasue of specific talents |
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Term
| do fluid and crystallized intelligence correlate? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| the people we consider to be smart may just be fast, higher IQ means more efficient neurons, or maybe just faster in processes needed for intelligent performance; ev. by simple reaction time, choice reaction time, inspection time all correlating with IQ |
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Term
| problems with theory that intelligence is about speed and new theory |
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Definition
| some problems too hard for people regardless of how much time they are given, maybe really about working memory, operation span (an experimental procedure used to measrue someone's working memory capacity - memorize something while operating on another) |
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Term
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Definition
| the intelligence required to solve every day problems |
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Term
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Definition
| the sort of intelligence measrued by intelligence testing, crucial for success in academic pursuits |
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Term
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Definition
| for of intelligence alleged by some authors as essential for devising new ideas or new strategies |
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Term
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Definition
| knowledge gained form everyday experience; specialized for specific domain; may be what practical intelligence is dependent on |
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Term
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Definition
| the ability to understand one's own emotions and others' and also teh ability to control emotions when appropriate; ability to perceive emotions, ability to use emotion to facilitiate thinking, ability to understand emotion, ability to manage emotion and oneself |
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Term
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Definition
| the six essential independent mental capacities, some of which are outside the traditional academic notions of intelligence, i.e., linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, personal intelligence - also intrapersonal (understanding self) and naturalistic (understanding patterns in nature) |
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Term
| genetic influence of intelligence |
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Definition
| IQ scores of twins highly correlated, scores correlate highly even when reared apart, also correlate with scores of real parents not adoptive parents; maybe cuz inherit potential which is not yet visible at early age (cuz young kids do not appear like real parents) |
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Term
| environmental factors of intelligence |
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Definition
| the longer a kid goes without schooling, the more IQ drops, drop of 6 points per year of school missed |
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Term
| effects of environment and genes in different SES groups |
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Definition
| among low socioeconomic status groups, genetics have less influence then environment, but among high SES groups, genetics have more influence and environmental factors less influence |
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Term
| effects of bio and environment on intell in general |
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Definition
| our bio provides us with genetically defined set of intellectual capaciteis but capacities only emerge with good schooling and health care |
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Term
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Definition
| an effect observed worldwide over last several decades in which IQ seems to be rising; increasing sophistication of our culture might be cause; also shows impacts of environment on IQ |
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Term
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Definition
| refers to the relative importance of heredity and environment in determining the observed narration of a particular trait. more specifically, the heredity ratio is teh proportion of the variance of teh trait in a given population that is attributabel to genetic factors |
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Term
| IQ and within groups vs. between groups comparison |
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Definition
| people think the fact that blacks do worse than whites on IQ tests is about genetics, can't compare between groups with respect to genetics - if you match groups based on environment then groups do roughly the same |
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Term
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Definition
| a hypothesized mechanism through which a person's performance on a test is influenced by her perception that the test results may confirm others' stereotypes about her |
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Term
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Definition
| the view that differences in personality are best characterized in terms of underlying, possibly innate, attributes that predispose one toward patterns of thinking and behavior that are essentially consistent over time adn across situations. |
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Term
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Definition
| holds that the words we use to describe people have been shaped by a kind of linguistic natural selection. words that are useful descriptors have continued to be used accross generation. words that are not useful have become "extinct." this hypothesis has provided justification for using the dictionary as a source of traits. |
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Term
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Definition
| refers to five apparently crucial dimensions of personality (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism) |
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Term
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Definition
| the idea that people seem to behave much less consistently than a trait conception would predict; for example low correlation between acts of honesty in a different situation, |
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Term
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Definition
| the notion that human behavior is determined in a situation better than personality |
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Term
| situationism and trait theory |
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Definition
| really both, our behavior reflects the interactions of the situation with personality |
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Term
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Definition
| situations that produce near uniforming in behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| situations that allow for a wide range of behaviors - the relationship between personality and actions is not always straightforward even here |
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Term
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Definition
| assesses the degree to which people are sensitive to their surroundings and likely to adjust their behaviors to fit in, high self-monitors are very conscious of how they appear to others |
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Term
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Definition
| a characteristic emotional or behavior pattern that is evident from an early age, is thought to be genetically determined, and evidence suggests that traits may grow out of this |
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Term
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Definition
| data about a person derived from measurement of biological structures and process - used to explore how people with different traits differ in their biological functioning; shows that introverts may have higher level of central nervous system reactivity - react more strongly to external stimuli |
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Term
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Definition
| tendency to seek varied and novel experiences, look for thrills and adventures, and be susceptible to boredom; might have underactive neurotransmitter systems |
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Term
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Definition
| a personality style characterized by a fear of novelty that is evident early in life - present in introverts |
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Term
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Definition
| the idea that people in different cultures have different personalities |
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Term
| family influences on personality |
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Definition
| being in same family environment isn't what matters - it's being genetically related; roles of children might also have some impact (birth order, gender) |
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Term
| psychodynamic perspective |
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Definition
| an approach to personality derived from psychoanalytic theory that asserts taht personality differences are based on unconscious conflicts within the individual |
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Term
| history of psychoanalysis |
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Definition
| freud saw many women with hysteria, thought these were psychogenic (result of some unknown psychological cause), believed people needed to high and express distress in subconscious so that "compromise" was physical symptoms |
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Term
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Definition
| method where patinets said anything that entered their mind and Freud believed emotionally charged "forgotten" memories would surface because all things are linked by association |
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Term
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Definition
| a term describing the patient's failure to associate freely and say whatever enters her head - means self-protection because experiences were anxiety-provoking |
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Term
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Definition
| a defense mechanism by means of which thoughts, impulses, or memories that five rise to anxiety are pushed out of consciousness |
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Term
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Definition
| one level of mental processes, thoughts and feeligns of which one is currently aware |
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Term
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Definition
| one level of mental processes, mental processes that are not currently in focal awareness, but that could easily be brought to awareness |
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Term
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Definition
| one level of mental processes, mental processes that are not and cannot easily become the object of focal awareness |
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Term
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Definition
| in Freud's theory, a term for the most primitive reactions of human personality, consisting of blind strivings for immediate biological satisfaction regardless of the cost; runs on the pleasure principle; urges for life instincts (eating, drinking, sex) and death instincts (explains aggression, war, and suicide) |
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Term
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Definition
| 1 of 2 major principles that Freud held governed psychological life. The pleasure principle is thought to characterize the id, which seeks to reduce tensions generated by biological urges |
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Term
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Definition
| in Freud's theory, a set of reactions that try to reconcile the id's blind pleasre strivings with the demands of reality. these lead to the emergence of various skills and capacities that eventually become a system that can look at itself; runs on reality principle |
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Term
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Definition
| one of the 2 major principles that Freud held governed psychological life. the reality principle is thought to characterize the ego, which governs pleasure pragmatically, by finding strategies that work in the real world. |
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Term
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Definition
| in Freud's theory, reaction patterns that emerge from within the ego, represent the internalized rules of society, and come to control the ego by punishment with guilt |
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Term
| conflict and defense in Freud's theory |
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Definition
| anxiety in this case is an internal reminder of the prospect that authorities will punish one for an action and one will feel abandoned and alone; repression then stops someone from doing somethign they will be punished for and even stops them from thinking about it |
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Term
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Definition
| a collective term for a number of reactions that try to ward off or lesson anxiety by various unconscious mechanisms |
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Term
| thresholds for actual sensing vs. perception |
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Definition
| it is an absolute threshold for sensing - all-or-none; but it is a gradient for perception |
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Term
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Definition
| if the weber fraction is 1/40 and have 80 things, will notice 83 vs. 80, but not 81 vs. 80 |
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Term
| if you have a high criterion |
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Definition
| there will be many times when you say "no" and there actually is one and few times when you say "yes and there isn't - high misses, low false alarms |
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Term
| what influences criterion |
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Definition
| you might have to guess in a situation, but if you know the probability of a certain event, you might set your criterion higher or lower |
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Term
| differences in sensitivity of rods and cones |
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Definition
| rods summate so more sensitive, cones don't summate/converge they have better resolution but less sensitivity |
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Term
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Definition
| when someone thinks too much about something that should be automotized |
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Term
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Definition
| not thinking enough when you should be thinking |
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Term
| what is predictive of ratings and our consciousness |
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Definition
| most predictive thing is order of presentation, but zero percent of people say that will affect their rating |
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Term
| rationalizing choices and happiness with those choices |
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Definition
| rationalizing a preference that may be illogical leads to making a selection that is easier to justify and less happiness with one's selection |
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Term
| the apartment study adn thinking without thinking |
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Definition
| when asked to rate apartments where there are two clearly obvious top picks and two clearly obvious lows, people do best when interrupted right after given information and not allowed to actually think about selection |
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Term
| what is consciousness good at and what is subconscious good at |
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Definition
| consciousness is good at looking at a few things in detail and subconscious is better at thinking about lots of complicated information and integrating it |
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Term
| externals or internals more susceptible to pavlovian conditioning |
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Definition
| externals - because more easily influenced by external situation |
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Term
| placebos and classical conditioning |
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Definition
| get a response to a pill because pill has a connection in mind to active ingredient so the effect is the trigger of andogenous opiates - so if you give people a drug that blocks opiates, placebo won't work |
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Term
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Definition
| it is either a breaking of the connection of the association between US and CS or it is a new conditioning where CS is associated with no US - inhibition |
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Term
| how does novel stimulus impact conditioning and extinction |
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Definition
| a novel stimulus inhibits stimulation so that it will disrupt conditioning and will disrupt inhibition - this shows that once conditioning is there is doesn't leave |
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Term
| when you have a backward pairing in classical conditioning, what happens? |
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Definition
| if us comes before cs, animal learns inhibition |
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Term
| if you have a CS of tone and light, and then try tone or light alone, what happens? |
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Definition
| nothing, animal assumes CS is only tone and light |
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Term
| if have tone as CS and then have CS as tone and light, what happens when try tone alone later and light alone? (Blocking) |
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Definition
| animal responds to tone alone, but not to light alone |
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Term
| if you have tone as CS with shock as US and then tone and light as CS with half as bad shock as US, what does light as CS do? |
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Definition
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Term
| high criterion and confirmation bias |
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Definition
| if you use a high criterion, there will be many hits so will believe that criterion is good even if overall there is little correlation between thing using for criterion and other event |
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Term
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Definition
| a defense mechanism, a process in which repressed urges find new and often disguised outlets that are more acceptable to the ego and superego |
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Term
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Definition
| a defense mechanism in which the repressed wish is warded off by its diametrical opposite |
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Term
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Definition
| a defense mechanism in which the person interprets her own feelings or actions in more acceptable terms |
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Term
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Definition
| a defense mechanism in which forbidden thoughts/impulses are attributed to another person rather than the self, warding off anxiety |
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Term
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Definition
| earliest stage of psychosexual development where pleasure centered in mouth - sucking on nipple; bundle of pleasure seeking instincts |
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Term
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Definition
| 2nd stage of psychosexual development during which the focus of pleasure is on activities related to elimination |
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Term
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Definition
| stage of psychosexual development during with the child begins to regard his or her genitals as a major source of gratification |
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Term
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Definition
| the last stage of psychosexual development reached in adult sexuality in which sexual pleasure involves not only one's own gratification but also the social and bodily satisfaction brought to another person |
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Term
| how do traits come from Freud's stages of psychosexual development? |
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Definition
| the child is frustrated by these transitions where he is forced to give up pleasures, how he handles this frustration gives rise to personality traits |
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Term
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Definition
| a personality type based on a fixation at the oral stage of development and whose manifestation scan include passive dependency or biting hostility - mentally stuck in oral phase |
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Term
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Definition
| an adult personality allegedly produced by a fixation on the anal stage. the character includes traits like orderliness and stinginess - due to conflicts in toilet training |
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Term
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Definition
| a general term for the cluster of impulses and conflicts hypothesized to occur during the phallic phase, at around age 5. in boys, a phatasized form of intense, possessive sexual love is directed at the moth, which is soon followed by hatred for and fear of the father. as the fear mounts, the sexual feelings are pushed underground and the boy identifies iwth the father. an equivalent process is hypothesized in girls and is called the Electra complex. |
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Term
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Definition
| the wish for a penis that is assumed to ensue normally in females as part of the Electra complex; girls view themselves as unworthy adn withdraw from mom because think her unworthy too; so girl turns to father who she thinks can give her a penis substitute (a child) |
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Term
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Definition
| accidentally saying things that reveal underlying motives or forgetting something that reminds us of something embarrassing |
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Term
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Definition
| believed dreams are attempts at wish fulfillment; superego weak during sleep so less inhibited - use symbolism because mind won't allow literal expression of thoughts |
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Term
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Definition
| the acutal wishes and concerns that a dream or behavior is intended to express |
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Term
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Definition
| the immediately visible, surface content of a dream or behavior. this content is hypothesized to be a means of repressing the latent content in disguised form, to protect the person from the anxiety associated with the latent content. |
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Term
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Definition
| a set of primordial stories and images, hypothesized by Carl Jung to be shared by all of humanity, and which he proposed underlie and shape our perceptions and desires; the primordial stories and images that constitute our collective unconscious = archetypes |
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Term
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Definition
| flawed experiments which show repression, people also often remember anxiety filled episodes all too well, recovered memories very controversial, little ev. to support fixations in dev leads to personalities, oedipus complex has little support, not fair to make such assumptions merely from clinical ev., 1 statement within Freud's theory can be interpreted many ways |
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Term
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Definition
| other ev. for psychodynamic approach, based on the idea that deeper layers of any indiv's personality contain repressed wishes and unconscious conflicts that are not accessible by ordinary means, requirs techniques which bypass defenses |
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Term
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Definition
| a school of psychodynamic thought that emphasizes the skils and adaptive capacities of the ego |
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Term
| levels of coping mechanisms |
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Definition
| denial or gross distortions of reality; projection, hypochondria, irrational and emotional outbursts; repression, reaction formation; humor, suppression, altruism |
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Term
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Definition
| a school of psychodynamic thought that emphasizes the real relations an individual has with others (as opposed to the fantasized) |
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Term
| primary attachment figure |
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Definition
| the main person to whom an infant attaches psychologically; object relations psychologists believe this to be very important in shaping child |
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Term
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Definition
| asserts that what is most important about people is hwo they achieve their selfhood and actualize their potentialities; belief that humans aren't trying to always get away from things - sometimes tryign to gain |
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Term
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Definition
| human needs are arranged in a hierarchy with physilogical needs such as hunger at the bottom, safety needs further up, the need for attachment and love still higher, and the desire for esteem yet highter. at very top is the need for self-actualization. usually can only reach top when bottom needs are fulfilled. |
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Term
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Definition
| generally, the sum of one's beliefs about adn attitudes twoard one-self; ; view of self as agent who takes actions and object that one dislikes or likes |
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Term
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Definition
| the desire to realize oneself to the fullest; someone at this stage is realistically oriented, accepting of themself and others, care more about the problems they are working on tehn theirselves, intimate relationships with few people rather than superficial ones with many |
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Term
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Definition
| a movement within the field of spychology that seeks to emphasize in its research the factors that make people healthy, happy, able to cope, or well adjusted in their life circumstances; optimism, religious faith, close personal relationships, and sense of self-determination have positive influence on life and health |
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Term
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Definition
| the fact that humans grow quickly accustomed to any stimulus or state which they are continually exposed to; don't adapt to positive events if you talk about them everyday |
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Term
| critiques of humanistic appraoch |
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Definition
| more moral advocation than science, hitler falls under def of self-actualized, self-actualized defined by a few good people |
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Term
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Definition
| the way people make sense of and interpret the world around them |
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Term
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Definition
| a set of beliefs, drawn from experience, about what the consequences (rewards and punishments) of certain actions are likely to be |
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Term
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Definition
| the sense a person has about what things he can plausibly accomplish |
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Term
| once we have self-efficacy and outcome expectations... |
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Definition
| our actions become dependent on internalized system of self-rewards and self-punishments and less on environment; this makes our behavior more constant; personality is a reflection of situations one has been exposed to in the past and expectations for the future |
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Term
| personality in soc-cog approach |
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Definition
| personality is reflection of situations one has been exposed to in past and expectations for future, personality is about decisions made on own accord rather than due to pushes of traits or pulls of situations, how we act depends on interpretation of situation (construals) |
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Term
| CAPS (cognitive-affective personality system) |
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Definition
| describes how personality is cognitive; different ways of seeing the worlds and thinking about it acquired over life; 5 key cognitive qualities on which people can differ: 1)encodings (set of construals by which one interprets world), 2)expectancies (include outcome expectations and self-efficacy), 3)affects (ppl differ in emotional responses to situations), 4)goals and values (differ in set of outcomes that are considered desirable), 5)competencies and self-regulatory plans (way individual regulates own behavior by self-imposed goals and strategies) |
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Term
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Definition
| control, attributional style, self-control |
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Term
| control - soc-cog concept |
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Definition
| people desire and benefit from control |
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Term
| attributional style - soc-cog concept |
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Definition
| the way a person typically explains things that happen in his or her life; differences in attributional style are predictive of progression of chronic disease, performance in sports, likelihood of becoming depressed |
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Term
| different ways of attributing things |
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Definition
| internal vs. external, global vs. specific, stable vs. unstable; depression associatied with internal, global, stable explanations |
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Term
| self-control, soc-cog concept |
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Definition
| teh ability to pursue a goal while adequately managing internal conflicts about it, or to delay pursuing a goal because of other considerations or constraints; people who can delay gratification are more successful in school, articulate, attentive, self-reliant, able to plan and think ahead, resilient under stress; might be a heritable component to this |
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Term
| comparing different approaches of personality |
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Definition
| trait theorists and soc-cog think of personality as stable but soc-cog pay mroe attention to situation; trait and soc-cog consider a genetic component but soc-cog think learned disposition; psychodynamic and soc-cog have deeper fous and both address delay of gratification; |
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Term
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Definition
| face-to-face interaction is most of early interaction, babies respond more to adults who respond to them, understand adults are a source of relief |
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Term
| relationship changes with locomotion |
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Definition
| moving leads to inevitable conflict so parental scolding increases at this age |
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Term
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Definition
| relying on the facial expression of their caregiver or some other adult as a source of info, as a cue about situation |
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Term
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Definition
| the mutual understanding people share during communication |
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Term
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Definition
| first seen at 6 to 8 months, a patter of emotions and behaviors that reflect a child's fear when her mother or caregiver leaves the room - indicates attachment |
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Term
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Definition
| teh strong, enduring, emotional bond between a child and its caregivers, and siad to be the basis for relationships in later life |
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Term
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Definition
| attachment seems to grow out of physical comfort from caregiver rather than from food, water, warmth, and physical protection |
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Term
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Definition
| the relationship for a child in which the child feels safe and protected; this safety allows child to explore environment knowing there is safety to return to |
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Term
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Definition
| a learned attachment that is formed at a particular period in life (the sensitive period) and is difficult to reverse |
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Term
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Definition
| in modern usage, a characteristic level of reactivity and energy, often thought to be constitutional - some believe this is the core of personality |
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Term
| differences in experiences and temperament |
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Definition
| temperament may lead to different experiences or different experiences may create different beliefs and expectations |
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Term
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Definition
| these children explore, play iwth toys in mother's presence adn show minor distress when mother leaves |
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Term
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Definition
| do not explore even in mother's presence, become quite upset when she leaves, ambivalent upon her return |
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Term
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Definition
| distance adn aloof when mother is present adn although they sometimes search for her when she leaves, typically snubbed upon return |
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Term
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Definition
| lack an organized way for dealing with the stress of mother leaving |
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Term
| secure attachment in diff pops |
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Definition
| less likely to be securely attached in less wealthy populations |
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Term
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Definition
| a set of beliefs and expectations about how people behave in social relationships, and also guidelines for interpreting others' acitons, and habitual responses to make in social settings - provided by attachment relationship |
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Term
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Definition
| more aggressive, less cooperative, more likely to become chronically hostile in adolescence and adulthood |
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Term
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Definition
| likely to be anxious and at increased risk for depression |
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Term
| how does conscience emerge |
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Definition
| learn about bad acts through rewards and punishment, law of effect (theory that a response is strengthened with reward and weakened with punishment) supports this; threat of punishment is internalized - but less so if parents use severe punishments; relationship with parents key - better relationship=faster building of conscience |
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Term
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Definition
| behavior that seeks to help and comfort others; impacted by parenting style, environment, temperament of kid |
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Term
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Definition
| a conception of psychopathology that distinguishes factors that create a risk of illnes (the diathesis) and the other factors that turn the risk into an actual problem (the stress) |
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Term
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Definition
| a model that acknowledges fromt he start that thare are many different factros that may contribute to a disorder |
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Term
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Definition
| patterns of symptoms and signs - the the diagnostician observes about a patient's physical or mental condition |
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Term
| symptoms of schizophrenia |
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Definition
| psychosis (loss of contact with reality), delusions, hallucinations, distracted, disruptions in actions and movement |
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Term
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Definition
| a subcategory of schizophrenia. its main symptoms are peculiar motor patterns, such as periods in which the patient is immobile and maintains strange positions for ours on end then with no ev. becomes frenzied. |
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Term
| disorganized schizophrenia |
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Definition
| a subtype of schizophrenia in which the predominant symptoms are etremem incoherence of though and naked inappropriateness of behavior and affect |
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Term
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Definition
| characteristics that popel with scizophrenia show and that poeple w/o the illness do not |
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Term
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Definition
| an absense od characteristics taht are typically found in healthy people - lack of emotion, little speacking, etc. |
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Term
| best guess for cause of schizophrenia |
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Definition
| viral illness of some kind initially, ev. by fact that twins that share a placenta have higher concordance if one develops schizophrenia than twins that don't share placenta |
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Term
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Definition
| hear name amidst background noise while suppressing this noise to have another conversation |
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Term
| three parts of an attention system |
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Definition
| 1)disengagement from current focus of attention, 2)movement to new object of attention, 3)locking in on new object |
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Term
| unilateral neglect syndrome |
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Definition
| ignore everything on one side of body due to parietal love damage, it's an attention problem because if you show them |
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Term
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Definition
| people aren't really doing two things at once, they are just rapidly shifting attention back and forth |
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Term
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Definition
| people who have damage to part of visual cortex and don't think they can see, but actually can |
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Term
| opponent process theory of motivation and classical conditioning |
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Definition
| the B process might be triggered by something in the environment in classical conditioning such that when new environment, B no longer exists (leads to overdose with drugs) |
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Term
| two roots for fear responses |
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Definition
| 1)direct: stimulus to amygdala; 2)slower: stimulus, cortex, amygdala - the events that produce phobias go through direct root so may not be conscious of event later |
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Term
| systematic desensitization |
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Definition
| used for treating phobias, try to condition response that is incompatible with the other conditioned response |
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Term
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Definition
| like extinction, prsent CS without US leads to inhibition, force someone to be in condition with snake without US (whatever lead to original association of phobia with fear) |
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Term
| positive reinforcement; negative reinforcement; positive punishment; negative punishment |
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Definition
positive reinforcement: present reward
negative reinforcement: remove something good
positive punishment: present punishment
negative punishment: remove something good |
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Term
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Definition
| animals learn in first part of study that nothing they do makes a difference and then when trying to teach animal they can make a difference, previous learned helplessness interferes with learning that can make a difference |
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Term
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Definition
| what's key isn't the injury, it's when it happens - if trying to remember something that happened an hour before injury, might remember it still whereas might not remember it if something 20 minutes before injury |
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Term
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Definition
| logical memory; using reason to remember something |
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Term
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Definition
| preservation of the temporal order of events in a specific situation; women are better at making episodic memories |
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Term
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Definition
| evident with T/F questions and response time, slower to recognize that canary is an animal than that a canary is a bird |
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Term
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Definition
| have associations with words, use T/F questions and response time to demonstrate, takes longer to determine that "bat is a bird" is false than "chair is a bird" |
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Term
| spreading activation model |
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Definition
stimulation of one thing leads to
stimulation of another thing maybe unrelated to first thing |
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Term
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Definition
| cues unrelated to the thing you are trying to remember, may trigger memory - Science Center triggers memory of faces |
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Term
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Definition
| don't remember things from childhood before language because memory is now based on language |
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Term
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Definition
| remember things better when in same state as when you originally learned it during recall |
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Term
| state-dependent learning and depression |
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Definition
| if depressed for long periods of time, you will better recall other memories from when you were depressed which keeps you in a state of depression |
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Term
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Definition
| people who are happier are more creative and do better work |
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Term
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Definition
| remember things that one expects to be a part of the memory, top-down example |
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Term
| with selection task, why do people get the wrong answer? |
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Definition
| confirmation bias - want to find evidence that supports their opinion when what you need is a card that would disprove your answer if something were on back |
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Term
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Definition
| tells you how much you should let the predictiveness vs. the probability of a description impact what you think is most likely |
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Term
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Definition
| if give a value in a question, people will adjust to that value but will give a value close to the value you gave them; nodding makes it closer to the anchor that shaking head |
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Term
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Definition
| when contemplating gains, people are mor likely to take small assured gain rather than risk of bigger gain because the risk isn't worth it because twice as much money isn't twice the value |
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Term
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Definition
| when contemplating loss, people are more likely to risk big loss than take small assured loss because would rather have possibility of no loss than assured loss |
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Term
| custody battle; who likely to award and punish |
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Definition
| likely to reward and punish the extremes because extreme situation has more to deny and more to recommend |
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Term
| diminishing marginal utility |
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Definition
| difference between 0 and 100 is not equal to difference between 100 and 200 |
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Term
| diminishing marginal disutility |
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Definition
| first loss hurts worse than the second loss, which hurts worse than the third - losing 200$ is not twice as bad as losing 100$ |
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Term
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Definition
| a loss hurts more than a gain, roughly 2.5 times worse as equivalent gain - why if given something even if don't like it, once it is yours you are not willing to trade it for something equal |
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Term
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Definition
| psychologically people determine purpose for money, so if lose a 20$ ticket and buy a new one - cost of even is 40$ but if lose a 20$ bill and buy a ticket, cost is still 20$ |
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Term
| empiricist view of intelligence |
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Definition
| learned associations; child is miniature adult - no qualitative difference, merely quantitative |
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Term
| nativist view of intelligence |
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Definition
| innate structures - all organisms have them; kids don't have intelligence without mental structures - most important is the mental structures on which facts get hung |
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Term
| Piaget and the empiricist and nativist views |
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Definition
| Piaget says it's not just about the facts so nativists are wrong and not same structures for everyone so empiricists are wrong |
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Term
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Definition
| characteristic of the preoperational stage: think, for ex., that the Sun is following them around |
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Term
| association of names with being |
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Definition
| characteristic of preoperational stage: for ex., if you call the dog a cat, it will go meow meow |
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Term
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Definition
| characteristic of preoperational stage, if you ask a kid are there more blue squares or orange squares, the will answer correctly; but if ask if there are more blue squares than squares they answer incorrectly - fail to see one thing as a subset of another |
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Term
| ultimate views of piaget's theory |
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Definition
| believed that these are universal states and that everyone ends in same place, believes that you don't track to to get ahead, track to get everyone to same place |
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Term
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Definition
| people think intelligence is a fixed quantity you are born with; these people work at things they are good at but avoid challenges cuz believe that they won't get better - self-fulfilling prophecy |
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Term
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Definition
| people think intelligence can grow with experience; these people seek challenges because they want to get smarter |
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Term
| getting an incremental or entity theory |
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Definition
| can be encouraged by the encouragments of parents; parents in china more likly to praise efforts whereas parents in america more likely to praise results so more academic incremental theorists in china |
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Term
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Definition
| "climbing ivy can be destructive", a phrase with two different meanings and ambiguity doesn't come from words, it comes from structure of the sentence |
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Term
| how do we learn language rules? |
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Definition
| maybe language learning is innate; through imitation of parents and parents' corrections (but ev. shows that parents do not always correct); |
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Term
| social psychologists, situation, and behavior |
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Definition
| social psychologists believe that situations make all people act in a certain way; personality theorists believe that there are intrapersonal similarities across situations and interpersonal variability |
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Term
| empiracally derived validity |
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Definition
| have different kinds of people ask random questions, then make a test of the questions that the different people gave different answers to |
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Term
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Definition
| worried that you have a problem so you develop another pathology that is more acceptable |
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Term
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Definition
| have identity and take energy and you redirect it out to art and literature |
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Term
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Definition
| like cognitive dissonance - find excuses when urges lead into consciousness |
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Term
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Definition
| all symptoms are just surface reactions to subconsciousness - once you resolve these, another symptom will pop up |
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Term
| three effects of socialization |
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Definition
| reward and punishment, imitation and identification, cognitive sophistication |
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Term
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Definition
| not about reason it's wrong, it's about emotion - it's about a biological feeling of disgust |
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Term
| self-fulfilling prophecy of schizophrenia |
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Definition
| once you develop symptoms, people treat you differently so you stay more to yourself so make own world; also if you correct the drug imbalance, still may have symptoms |
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Term
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Definition
| doesn't seem to relate to anything going on in your life |
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Term
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Definition
| result of things going on in your life |
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