Term
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Definition
-Developed 1st theory of child’s cognitive development
-Focused on how children made mistakes |
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Term
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Definition
-Theory of Cognitive Development
-Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Conrete Operational, Formal operational |
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Term
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Definition
-birth – 2 years old
-Coordinating sensory experience with motor activity=explore world through looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, grasping
Dev. Phenomena:
-Object permanence
-Stranger anxiety |
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Term
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Definition
-8-12 months
-Begin to mentally represent object when not perceived
-A not B search error
-Mastered around 12 to 18 months |
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Term
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Definition
-2-6/7 years old
-Thinking at a symbolic level
-Representing objects and experiences with words and images
-allow child to do mentally what before did physically
-Significant language development-tons of questions
-3 important advances in make-believe play between 1 ½ to 3 years
-Flexible imagination
-Less self-centered
-More complex combination of schemes
Dev. Phenomena:
-Pretend Play
-Egocentrism |
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Term
| Limitations in Preoperational Stage |
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Definition
-Operations that involve obeying logical rules
-Egocentrism
-Animism
-Inability to conserve
-Centration
-Lack of reversibility
-Difficulty with hierarchical classification |
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Term
| 1. Operations that involve obeying logical rules |
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Definition
-Thinking is rigid
-Influenced by way things appear at the moment |
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Term
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Definition
-Piaget had children familiarize themselves with asymmetrical mountain scene
-3-4 year olds-doll see what they see, not taking others perspective |
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Term
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Definition
-Type of magical thinking
-Inanimate objects have lifelike qualities
-Confusing appearance with reality
-3-6 year olds introduced to dog who then left room and came back with cat mask
-“What kind of animal is it?” |
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Term
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Definition
-Various conservation tasks that children are presented with
-Ex.: Conservation of volume, mass |
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Term
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Definition
-Conservation tasks highlights that child’s understanding is characterized by centration
-Focus on one aspect of situation |
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Term
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Definition
| -Ability to go thru series of steps in a problem and then mentally reverse direction, to return to starting point |
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Term
| 7. Difficulty with hierarchical classification |
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Definition
| -Organize objects into classes and subclasses on basis of similarities and differences |
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Term
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Definition
-7-11 years old
-Thought becomes more logical, flexible, and organized
-Successful with conservation tasks
-Decentration
-Reversibility
-Seriation
Dev. Phenomena:
Conservation
Mathematical transformations |
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Term
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Definition
recognize that change in one aspect of object is compensated by change in another aspect
Ex. When children are asked to compare the volume of juice in two glasses, it is their ability to decentrate that enables them to flexibly consider both the height and the width of the glasses in arriving at their decision. Younger children tend to get fixed on only one dimension or attribute |
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Term
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Definition
| Children capable of conservation appreciate that an object's quality is not altered simply by transforming how that object appears. Ex. if Mom takes four apples from a bowl in the middle of the table and puts one at each family member's plate, there are still four apples present. |
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Term
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Definition
child's ability to order objects with respect to a common property.
Ex. Sticks |
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Term
| Limitations in Concrete Operational |
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Definition
-Can’t work with abstract ideas
-Understand hypothetical
-Inductive Reasoning |
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Term
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Definition
-adolescence-adulthood (11 and up)
-Mental actions/operations are performed on ideas and propositions
-Hypothetical deductive reasoning-ability to think hypothetically and reason from general to specific
-Inductive reasoning-going from specific to general
Dev. Phenomena
-Abstract Logic
-Potential for mature moral reasoning |
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Term
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Definition
| the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age |
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Term
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Definition
-(Around 9-12 months)
-an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation
Types: Secure, ambivalent, avoidant, disoriented |
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Term
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Definition
-explored room while having a touch base (60% of US babies have secure attachment)
-in mothers presence: happy, play comfortably, explore environment. Leaves: could become distressed, when returns seek contact. With stranger, wary but calm if mom there
-Temperament parenting styles |
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Term
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Definition
-Willing to explore but no touch base
-No response to strangers
-No interest in mom if she left
-Mother-unresponsive, insensitive
-Most distinguished behavior-The baby treats the mom and the child similarly, you don’t see happiness or sandiness, used to being left alone, same reaction to when stranger was in room, continues what he/she was doing |
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Term
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Definition
-Clingy and unwilling to explore
-Upset by presence of strangers
-Hard to soothe
-Mixed behavior of demanding to be picked up and pushing mother away
-Mother-inconsistent responsiveness; insensitive |
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Term
| 4. Disorganized-Disoriented |
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Definition
-(added 4 years later)
-Similar to ambivalent
-Mother return led to avoidance, fearfulness, and depressed looks
-Mother-abusive and /or neglectful (10%) |
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Term
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Definition
-behavioral and emotional characteristics at birth
-One of the first ways infants demonstrate their personality
-Longitudinal research suggests that temperament styles last well into adulthood, but there is environmental influence
-How parent’s personality matches the infants |
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Term
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Definition
| Easy, Difficult, Slow to warm up |
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Term
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Definition
| Regular with their schedules, adaptable to change, easily soothed |
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Term
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Definition
| Irregular schedules, loud and active, inflexible |
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Term
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Definition
| Less negative and more regular than difficult children, slow to adapt to change/ has to come gradually |
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Term
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Definition
-Some children may be mix of 2
-Too specific with traits
-Broad personality dispositions
-How to disposition development into traits depend upon how they interact with environment |
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Term
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Definition
| mental representation of object or experience, learning new things |
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Term
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Definition
-a child modifies a schema to create a new shema for the new information their receiving
-Knowing it’s a fruit and then knowing specific |
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Term
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Definition
- when a child takes info and uses it an already exsititng schema to interpret it
-ex. Thinking what they already know about an orange that it’s a fruit so it must be a fruit)
-Figuring out its fruit |
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Term
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Definition
| argued that attachment is very crucial for later development |
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Term
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Definition
-Strange situation test-observes watch children room and interact with mom, stranger arrives, mom leaves, and then child is alone
-Forms within first six months |
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Term
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Definition
| (Diana Baumrind) Authoritarian, Permissive, Authoritative, Neglectful |
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Term
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Definition
-Impose rules and expect obedience
-Aim to cultivate hard work, respect and obedience |
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Term
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Definition
-Make few demands and use little punishment
-Offers warmth |
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Term
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Definition
-Both demanding and responsive
-Impose rules, but also explain reason
-High level of warmth |
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Term
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Definition
-No warmth or control
-May meet physical, but no emotional needs |
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Term
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Definition
| -Looked at how individuals of various ages responded to stories about people caught up in moral dilemmas |
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Term
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Definition
o Cross-cultural research support Kohlberg’s first two stages
o 3rd stage only occurs for European and North American educated middle class
o Biased against communal societies where individualism isn’t promoted (e.g. China and India)
o Preconventional Morality, Conventional Morality, Postconventional Morality |
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Term
| 1. Preconventional Morality |
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Definition
-Consequences determine morality; If behavior is rewarded then right, that which is punished is wrong
EX. A child who steals a toy from another child and doesn’t get caught. He does not see his action as morally wrong |
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Term
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Definition
-Conformity to social norms is right, nonconformity is wrong
-The good girl good boy attitude, thinking about what other people think of you
EX. A child criticizes his/her parents for speeding because it’s against the law |
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Term
| 3. Postconventional Morality |
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Definition
-Moral principles determined by the person are used to determine right and wrong. May disagree with societal norms
EX. Holocaust |
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Term
| Adolescence Limitations in Thinking |
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Definition
o Cognitively-
1. Think abstractly and hypothetically
2. Inductive and deductive reasoning
However,
1. Egocentric
2. Imaginary Audience
3. Risk-taking behavior (leads to poor decision making) |
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Term
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Definition
o Left adolescence but are still some distance from taking on adult responsibilities
o Emphasized psychological qualities- self-suffiency
o Collectivists cultures (Hispanic, African-American) – also place emphasis on attaining certain roles |
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Term
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Definition
1. Financial Independence
2. Taking responsibilities for your decisions
3. Develop your beliefs and views
4. Equal relationship with your parents
o When does one become an adult? What age?
-Cannot be define solely in terms of physical maturation
-Sociocultural factors also play a role |
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Term
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Definition
(2000, 2004)
-Large, diverse samples of 18-25 years old
1. Age of identity exploration
2. Age of instability
3. Age of self focus
4. Age of feeling in between
5. Age of possibilities |
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Term
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Definition
-Biological: Genes, Nutrition
-Psychological: Optimism, Active life style
-Social-Cultural: Social support, meaningful activities, respect for aging, Safe living conditions |
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Term
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Definition
-Ivan Pavlov
-Learning to make a reflex respond to stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that produces the reflex
Important Elements that must be Present in Classical Conditioning |
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Term
| 1. Unconditional Stimulus |
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Definition
unlearned or naturally occurring leads to reflex
Ex. Food |
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Term
| 2. Unconditional Response |
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Definition
reflex response to US or naturally occurring stimulus
Ex. Saliva |
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Term
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Definition
-stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by being paired with original US
-Needs to be initially neutral stimulus
Ex. Bell |
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Term
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Definition
-learned reflex response to a condition stimulus
-Usually not as strong as original UCR
Ex. Saliva
-CR and UCR are the same-simply differ in what they respond to |
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Term
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Definition
| tendency to respond to stimulus that is similar to original CS in the CS-CR pairing |
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Term
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Definition
tendency to stop making generalized response to a stimulus that is similar to original CS
-Similar stimulus is never paired with UCS |
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Term
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Definition
| -Disappearance of weakening of CR following removal of US |
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Term
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Definition
| -reappearance of learned response (CR) after extinction occurred |
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Term
| Types of classical conditioning |
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Definition
1. High-Order Conditioning
2. Conditioned Emotional Response (CER)
3. Vicarious Conditioning
4. Conditioned Taste Aversion |
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Term
| 1. High-Order Conditioning |
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Definition
-Strong CS paired with NS
-Snap fingers NS → Rang Bell CS → Salivate CR
*NS becomes a second CS |
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Term
| 2. Conditioned Emotional Response (CER) |
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Definition
-John Watson’s “Little Albert” experiment
-Demonstrated that a phobia can be learned
-Loud Noise US → Rat CS → Other stimuli similar to rat (rabbit, fur coat) →UR Fear CR
-Can be some of the easiest forms of Classical Conditioning to accomplish
-Real life exs:
-Child’s fear of dentist chair
-Puppy’s fear of rolled-up newspaper |
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Term
| 3. Vicarious Conditioning |
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Definition
-To be classically conditioned by simply watching someone else responds to stimulus
-Ex. Years ago children lined up at school to get vaccinations
-Ex. Jack and swim lessons |
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Term
| 4. Conditioned Taste Aversion |
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Definition
-Development of nausea or aversive response to particular taste because taste was followed by nausea reaction
-Can occur in 1 association
-Survival mechanism
-Eat mussels/clams
-Birds and Monarch butterflies |
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Term
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Definition
-Law of Effect
-Puzzle Box |
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Term
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Definition
-Law of Effect: Learning of voluntary behavior through effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to response
-Behavior → Reinforcement = Increase Behavior
-Behavior → Punishment = Decrease Behavior |
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Term
| 1. Positive Reinforcement |
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Definition
| involving a pleasurable consequence (i.e., reward) |
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Term
| 2. Negative Reinforcement |
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Definition
involving removal, escape from or avoidance of unpleasant stimuli
-Ex. Child lies to avoid scolding |
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Term
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Definition
-reinforcement of simple steps in behavior that lead to desired, more complex behavior
-Reinforce each successive approximation |
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Term
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Definition
| -removal of reinforcement |
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Term
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Definition
-responses generalized to stimuli that are similar to original
Ex. Baby starts saying “ma-ma” to all women
-As other women fail to reinforce her response, baby learns to discriminate
-Mom becomes discriminative stimulus |
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Term
| Schedules of Reinforcement |
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Definition
| Timing of reinforcement will affect how quickly learning occurs and strength of response |
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Term
| 1. Continuous Reinforcement |
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Definition
| reinforcement for each and every correct response |
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Term
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Definition
-reinforcement after some, but not all correct responses
-4 types |
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Term
| 1. Fixed (certain amount) Ratio (behaviors) |
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Definition
| rewarded for certain number of responses |
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Term
| 2. Variable (unpredictable) Ratio (behaviors) |
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Definition
number of responses required for reinforcement is different for each trial
Ex. Slot machines
-Produces high rates of responding |
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Term
| 3. Fixed (certain amount) Interval (time) |
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Definition
reinforcement after fixed time period
Ex. Paycheck
Every so often (every 2 weeks reinforcements given |
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Term
| 4. Variable (unpredictable) Interval (time) |
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Definition
Unpredictably often (random amount of time reinforcement happens)
-Ex. Pop quizzes, fishing |
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Term
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Definition
-Decrease likelihood of behavior occurring
-Doesn’t always eliminate behavior, however will stop behavior immediately
-Good to use when child is exhibiting dangerous/self injurious behavior
-Doesn’t teach appropriate behavior. Tells you what not to do |
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Term
| 3. Punishment by application |
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Definition
( + Punishment)
-Addition or experiencing of an unpleasant stimulus (getting spanked) |
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Term
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Definition
(- punishment)
-Removal of pleasurable stimulus, |
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Term
| Cognitive Learning Theory |
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Definition
-Pavlov and Skinner focused on observable behavior only
-Some psychologists-cant ignore cognition that occurs during behavior
-Cognition-mental events that take place in person’s mind |
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Term
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Definition
| Classical conditioning and dog experiment |
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Term
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Definition
| -floor will shock you if you press the wrong button but if you press right button food will come out |
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Term
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Definition
Cognitive learning theory
Latent Learning-learning that remains hidden until application becomes useful
-Three groups of rats
1st-rewarded every time exited maze
2nd-rewards began after 10th day
Control group-no reward
-2nd group didn’t take as long to solve maze once rewarding started
-Suggesting that they learned some of maze layout, but weren’t motivated to demonstrate learning until reinforcement began |
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Term
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Definition
-Group of rats hear a tone and receive a shock midway in tone. Developed fear when hear the tone
-Second group of rats hear tone and then receive a shock. Fear emerges when tone stops |
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Term
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Definition
| -Learning new behavior through observation of model |
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Term
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Definition
placed child in room with experimenter and model
-One condition-interact appropriately with toys
-Second condition-acted aggressively toward Bobo doll
-Children imitated model when left alone in the room
-Saw children either demonstrating appropriate play or aggressive behavior, depending on which model they saw |
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Term
| 4 Elements in Observation Learning |
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Definition
1. Attention-observer must pay attention to model
2. Memory-retain information of what was done (e.g., remember the steps)
3. Limitation-has to be capable of reproducing or imitating actions of the model
4. Motivation-must have desire to perform the action |
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Term
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Definition
| –information is held for brief periods of time while being used |
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Term
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Definition
| -active system that processes the information in stm |
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Term
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Definition
| -information is placed to be kept more or less permanent |
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Term
| Earliest Memory (Autobiographical Memory) |
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Definition
-Infantile Amnesia-inability to retrieve memories from before age 3
-Class findings |
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Term
| Influences of Earliest Memory |
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Definition
Must have clear self-image-usually around 2
o Language skills are emerging
o Be able to integrate their experiences into meaningful, time-organized life story
o Hippocampus becomes more fully developed
o Parents encouragement of recalling memories |
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Term
| Repetitive parent encouragement |
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Definition
| -reinstating but not adding anything new to memory |
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Term
| Elaborative Parent encouragement |
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Definition
-reinstating and adding information to memory
o Preschoolers who experienced elaborative style, recall more information about past events
o Also produce more org. and detailed memories |
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Term
| Children and Eyewitness Memory |
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Definition
o Younger the child the more prone to memory errors
-Descriptions of past events
-Infer others’ motives and intentions |
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Term
| Reasons for Eyewitness Memory |
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Definition
-Responding to interviewer’s questions
-Poor source monitoring
-More likely to agree with adults’ yes-or-no questions
-Less competent at using narratives
-Less skilled in inhibition-kids can create false memories
o Children were more likely to say yes to yes-or-no questions to please adults |
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Term
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Definition
looked at memory and research, idea that you can add memories that weren’t there based on the way you ask questions, did it with video clip of hot air balloon or car accident,
-Focus on inaccuracies of memory retrieval
-Memory is constantly changing
-How you question someone affects his or her ability to recall accurate information
-Constructive processing-retrieval of memory in which memories are altered, revised, or influenced by newer information
o Early research-how a question is worded can alter a person’s memory for a witnessed event
o Presupposition-if question presupposes an event, later questioning leads one to incorporate it in recalling the memory |
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Term
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Definition
-representations that stand in for objects or events and have a picture-like quality
o Takes longer to view mental images that are longer or covers more distance |
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Term
| Chambers and Reisberg (1985) |
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Definition
o None of the participants could reinterpret their visual image
o However if saw the picture again, would reinterpret it |
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Term
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Definition
o Not exact image, but rather an approximate visual image
o Tend to think of geographical locations in terms of larger units
o Another example of imprecision of visual images |
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Term
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Definition
o Ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events or activities
o Use to thinking about categories versus specific examples of category
o Allows identification of new objects and events that might fit concept
o Represents different levels of objects and events
1. Superordinate concept-most general form
2. Basic Level Type-type of concept around which other similar concepts are organized
3. Subordinate concept-most specific type |
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Term
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Definition
o Defined by specific rules or features
o Fairly rigid with rules
o Ex. Psychological terms- unconditioned stimulus; prenatal stage of development; double-blind experiments
o Must fit very specific features to be considered true examples |
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Term
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Definition
o Concepts we form as a result of our experiences in the world
o Helps us understand surroundings in less structured manner than formal concepts
o Ex. Is a platypus a mammal or a bird? |
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Term
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Definition
o Mental image that closely matches the defining characteristics of concept
o People with different experiences will have different prototypes
o Cultures also matters in formation of prototypes
o Apples vs. Papaya
o Greater differences of prototypes between cultures that are dissimilar |
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Term
| Methods used to solve problems and make decisions |
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Definition
| Trail and Error, Algorithms, Heuristics, the availability with heuristics, insight |
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Term
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Definition
(aka mechanical solution)
- Keep trying until find solution that works
- Also involves solving by rote or learned set of rules |
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Term
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Definition
-specific, step-by-step procedure for solving certain types of problems
-Always lead to solution if solution is to be found
Ex. Mathematical formulas, some computer programs |
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Term
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Definition
- “rule of thumb”
- Simple rule that is intended to be apply to many situations
- Educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down possible solutions
- Will not always lead to correct solution
- Useful type of heuristic is to work backwards from goal
- Ex. Shortest route to get to The Pub
- Sometimes starting at end and working backwards doesn’t help
- Ex. Writing a research paper |
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Term
| The availability of heuristic |
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Definition
| - Estimation of likelihood of events based on their availability in memory |
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Term
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Definition
-sometimes solution suddenly pops into your head
- Happens when you’re not actively thinking about the problem
-Like an “aha” moment
-What usually happens when insight occurs?
-Marsha and Marjorie question/ they were triplets |
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Term
| Problems with problem-solving |
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Definition
o Having different types of barriers to make solving problems difficult
1. Functional fixedness- think about objects only in terms of their typical functions
2. Mental sets- using problem-solving patterns that worked in past
3. Ex. Screw is loose in chair, use other things such as knives, coins as a screw |
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Term
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Definition
| - search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence to the contrary |
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Term
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Definition
| - logical thinking; problem is seen as having only one answer |
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Term
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Definition
| - creative thinking-coming up with entirely new ways of looking at or problem or have inventive solutions |
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