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Psych Exam #2
Chapters 6-9,11
58
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
11/02/2011

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Term
Learning
Definition
An enduring change in behavior, resulting from experience.
Term
Classical Conditioning
Definition
Also called "Pavlovian conditioning" after Ivan Pavlov. A type of learned response that occurs when a neutral object comes to elicit a reflexive response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces that response.
Term
Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning
Definition
A learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future
Term
Unconditioned Response (UR)
Definition
A response that does not have to be learned, such as a reflex (eg. salivation)
Term
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Definition
A stimulus that elicits a response, such as a reflex, without any prior training (eg. smell/sight of food)
Term
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Definition
A stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has take place (eg. ringing of bell)
Term
Conditioned Response (CR)
Definition
A response that has been learned associated with the CS (eg. salivation) but is generally weaker than the UR
Term
Acquisition
Definition
The gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. For example, If a delicious and nutritious plant blooms every time it rains, an animal will learn to seek out the plant every time it rains
Term
Contiguity
Definition
The critical element in the acquisition of a learned association which is that the stimuli must occur together in time (usually best if there is a brief time delay between CS and US)
Term
Extinction
Definition
A process in which the CR is weakened when the CS is repeated without the US (The CR is extinguished when the CS no longer predicts the US). Another form of learning that overwrites the previous association
Term
Spontaneous Recovery
Definition
A process in which a previously extinguished response reemerges following the presentation of the CS. Is temporary and will quickly fade unless the CS is again paired with the US.
Term
Stimulus Generalization
Definition
Occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the CS produce the CR. This is adaptive because in nature the CS is seldom experienced repeatedly in an exact identical fashion.
Term
Stimulus Discrimination
Definition
A differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of the is consistently associated with the US (eg. two plants may look similar but one is poisonous so an animal quickly learns to separate the two)
Term
Second-Order Conditioning
Definition
Eg. money is just paper or cheap metal but people learn to associate that paper/metal with something desirable.
For Pavlov, pairing a gray square with the ringing bell, taking away the ringing bell, and they gray square alone will produce salivation, although less than with ringing bell.
Term
Phobia
Definition
An acquired fear that is out of proportion to the real threat of an object or of a situation.
Term
Fear Conditioning
Definition
Learning by which an animal/human begins to associate a neutral stimulus with fear.
Term
Counter-conditioning
Definition
Exposing people to small doses of the feared stimulus while having them engage in a pleasurable task
Term
Systematic Desensitization
Definition
using relaxation exercises while imagining the feared object or situation
Term
Biological preparedness
Definition
The argument that animals are genetically programmed to fear specific objects. This also correlates to how people are more predisposed to wariness of out-group members and therefore why prejudices are so common today
Term
Rescorla-Wagner model
Definition
A cognitive model of classical conditioning; it states that the strength of the CS-US association is determined by the extent to which the unconditioned stimulus is unexpected. The more unexpected it is, the more the organism puts into remembering it so it can predict it next time
Term
Operant Conditioning
Definition
The learning process in which an action's consequences determine the likelihood that the action will be performed in the future.
Term
Law of effect
Definition
Thorndike's general theory of learning: Any behavior that leads to a "satisfying state of affairs" will more likely occur again, and any behavior that leads to an "annoying state of affairs" will less likely recur
Term
Reinforcer
Definition
A stimulus that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated
Term
Shaping
Definition
A process of operant conditioning; it involves reinforcing behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior
Term
Primary reinforcers
Definition
Biologically related reinforcers, such as food, water, sex
Term
Secondary reinforcers
Definition
Reinforcers that do not relate to biological necessities
Term
Premack Principle
Definition
a more valued activity can be used to reinforce the performance of a less valued activity. "Eat your spinach and then you get dessert" "Finish your homework then you can go out"
Term
Ratio schedule
Definition
A schedule in which reinforcement is based on the number of times the behavior occurs eg. every third time or every 10th time you are reinforced
Term
Interval schedule
Definition
Reinforcement based on a time interval, eg. workers being paid by the hour
Term
Fixed schedule
Definition
A schedule in which reinforcement is consistently provided upon each occurrence. eg. factory workers earning $8/hour every hour
Term
Variable schedule
Definition
Reinforcement is applied at different rates or at different times, eg. sales commission only comes when someone offers to buy your produce
Term
Partial-reinforcement extinction effect
Definition
The greater persistence of behavior under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement
Term
Behavior modification
Definition
The use of operant-conditioning techniques to eliminate unwanted behaviors and replace them with desirable ones
Term
Token economies
Definition
People earn tokens for completing tasks and lose tokens for behaving badly. Used in elementary schools, hospital, prisons...
Term
Cognitive maps
Definition
A visual/spatial mental representation of an environment
Term
Latent Learning
Definition
Learning that takes place in the absence of reinforcement
Term
Optimal foraging theory
Definition
Describes how animals in the wild choose their own reinforcement schedules eg. an animal must choose between a patch that is very variable and one that is considerably less variable in its amount of food. If the animal is facing starvation it will likely choose the higher variable one
Term
Meme
Definition
A unit of knowledge transferred within a culture. Imo the monkey washing a sweet potato in the water and soon all the other monkeys do so too
Term
Observational Learning
Definition
The acquiring or modifying of a behavior after exposure to at least one performance of that behavior
Term
Modeling
Definition
The imitation of behavior through observational learning
Term
Vicarious learning
Definition
Learning that occurs when people learn the consequences of an action by observing others being rewarded or punished for performing the action
Term
Mirror neurons
Definition
Neurons that are activated during observation of others performing an action
Term
Intracranial Self-Stimulation
Definition
Performing some action to cause a shock that would increase the dopamine in one's body to feel pleasure
Term
Nucleus accumbens
Definition
The region of the brain associated with the release of dopamine when experiencing rewardful pleasure
Term
Habituation
Definition
A decrease in behavioral response following a repeated exposure to a novel nonthreatening stimuli
Term
Sensitization
Definition
An increase in behavioral response following exposure to a threatening stimuli
Term
Long-term Potentiation (LTP)
Definition
The strengthening of a synaptic connection so that postsynaptic neurons are more easily activated
Term
Implicit Memory
Definition
LTM that occurs without us consciously thinking about it (unconscious memories)
Term
Explicit Memory
Definition
Deliberately remembering information so that you can know it later. eg. studying for this psych exam and knowing what this term means :P
Term
Declarative Memory
Definition
What you will try to use when you take this psych exam - cognitive information retrieved from explicit memory
Term
Episodic Memory
Definition
A form of explicit memory that is about one's own personal experiences
Term
Semantic Memory
Definition
A form of explicit memory that is about factual information separate from ones own persona.
Term
False Fame Effect
Definition
If all you remember about a name is that you have heard it before, you will likely assume that it belongs to a famous person
Term
Repetition priming
Definition
The improvement in identifying or processing a stimulus that has been experienced previously
Term
Prospective Memory
Definition
Remembering to do something at sometime in the future
Term
Maintenance rehearsal
Definition
A technique for LTM storage by simply repeating and repeated something
Term
Elaborative rehearsal
Definition
A technique for LTM storage that involves a deeper meaning of conceptualization or relating it to oneself
Term
Schema
Definition
A way to think. Everyone thinks differently, therefore everyone has a different schema. For example I may solve 10*2 by taking 10+10, someone else may do just 2 with a 0 added onto it so 20.
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