Term
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Definition
| Incorporates the study of attitudes and perceptions, persuasion, and typical behaviors of relatively normal people in their relationships with others. |
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Term
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Definition
| Study social behavior. They are interested in the ways people influence and are influenced by each other. |
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Term
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Definition
| Accepting some disadvantage to ourselves in order to help others. |
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Term
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Definition
| When a prisoner must choose between a cooperative act or one very beneficial only to him or herself that is hurtful to others. In the dilemma, people have great difficulty choosing the cooperative option, even with the possibility of the selfish strategy backfiring. |
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Term
| Reciprocal Altruism (Tit for Tat) |
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Definition
| We tend to help others with the understanding that they should eventually help us. We keep track of who holds up his or her end of the bargain so that we know with whom it is in our best interest to cooperate with. |
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Term
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Definition
| An excercise in which there are short-term rewards for competitive behavior but people often chose to be altruistic, perhaps in hopes of gaining a reputation for being fair and helpful. |
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Term
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Definition
| It is possible that we learn to cooperate instead of compete because other members of our community will punish us for not exhibiting some altruistic behavior. Research suggests that the more cooperative the culture, the greater the punishment is for not exhibiting altruistic behavior. |
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Term
| Bystander Helpfulness or Apathy |
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Definition
The presence of many people during a crime may create a sense of diffusion of responsibility.
We may convince ourselves that if there are many other people present, someone else will help, so we do nothing. |
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Term
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Definition
| People are less likely to help someone if they see other people who are in an equally good position to help. They will decide therefore to say or do nothing. |
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Term
| Diffusion of Responsibility |
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Definition
| We tend to feel less responsible to act when other people are equally able to act. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to "loaf" or work less hard when working in a group. |
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Term
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Definition
| Founder of Moral Development |
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Term
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Definition
Moral reasoning is the basis for ethical behavior and has six identifiable developmental stages. The process of moral development continues through the lifespan.
Young children tend to equate wrongness with punishment.
Kohlberg measured maturity of individual's moral reasoning by evaluating the responses given to moral dilemmas (problems that pit one moral value against another) |
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Term
| Social Perception and Cognition |
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Definition
| Mental processes that help us to collect and remember info about others, and to make inferences and judgements based on that info. |
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Term
| First Impressions (Primacy Effect) |
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Definition
| The principle that the first information learned about someone will be a more powerful influence on our perceptions than any later information will be. |
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Term
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Definition
A generalizd belief about a group of people. Widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of membership in a particular group.
We tend to remember unusual qualities or characteristics more readily than ordinary ones, so we form false stereotypes easily.
Some stereotypes are based on exaggerations of essentially correct observations. |
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Term
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Definition
| An unfavorable attitude towards a group of people. |
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Term
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Definition
| The behavior of unintentionally discriminating against some groups while expressing the belief that all people are equal. |
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Term
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Definition
| Unequal treatment of different groups. |
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Term
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Definition
Founded by Fritz Hider
Analyzes how we explain other people's behavior. |
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Term
| Internal or Dispositional Attributions |
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Definition
| Explanations based on an individual's perceived stable characteristics, such as attitudes, personality traits, or abilities. People tend to attribute another person's behavior to internal causes. |
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Term
| External or Situational Attributions |
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Definition
| Explanations based on the current situation and events that would influence all people. External causes could be due to something about a person's situation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Harold Kelly proposed that we rely on three types of information when deciding whether to make an internal or external attribution for someone's behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| How one individual's behavior compares with other people's. |
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Term
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Definition
| How the person's behavior varies over time. |
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Term
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Definition
| How the person's behavior varies between situations. |
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Term
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Definition
| Attributions that we use to optimize our perception of ourselves, where we attribute our success to personal factors and failures to situation factors. |
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Term
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Definition
| A like or dislike that influencs our behavior toward a person or thing. |
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Term
| Central Route to Persuasion |
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Definition
| When making serious decisions, people invest time and effort in evaluating the evidence and logic behind the message. |
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Term
| The Foot-In-The-Door Technique |
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Definition
| A moderate request is followed by a larger one. A strategy designed to gain a favorable response to a small request at first. Intent is to get you to agree later with a larger request. |
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Term
| The door-in-the-face Technique |
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Definition
| An outrageous initial request is followed by a more reasonable one. Someone makes a large, unreasonable request, expecting you to refuse and likely gets you to agree to a smaller request later. |
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Term
| The bait-and-switch technique |
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Definition
| A very favorable deal is followed by additional demands after a commitment has been made. |
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Term
| The that's-not-all Technique |
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Definition
| The offer is improved before any reply is given. |
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Term
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Definition
| Someone makes a very attractive initial offer to get you to commit to an action, then makes the terms less favorable after your commitment. |
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Term
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Definition
| How do we choose our friends? |
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Term
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Definition
| We are likely to become friends with people who live near us and become familiar to us. |
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Term
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Definition
The more often we see someone or something the more likely we are to start to like the person or thing.
This effect will not change our feelings if we hate the person or thing. |
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Term
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Definition
We are drawn to those who are like ourselves in background, attitudes, interests and other important ways.
We choose people who'll confirm our self-concept and level of self-esteem. |
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Term
| Exchange or Equity Theories |
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Definition
| We seek people with whom we feel we can make equitable transactions of goods and services. |
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Term
| Physical Attractiveness in selecting a mate. |
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Definition
It is important to both sexes. Research suggests that in other species attractiveness may be seen as an indicator of good health and good genes.
"Attractive" in most cultures is what is considered "normal" or "average-looking". |
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Term
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Definition
| Marriage is valued in our society as a crucial social institution and source of fulfillment. |
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Term
| What is so difficult about acheiving a satisfying and lasting marriage? |
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Definition
Humans tend to crave contact with others; even mediocre company is better than none.
In our important relationships, we need to know more about our companions. Acheiving fulfilling relationships requires choosing our friends and intimates wisely. |
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Term
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Definition
| The branch of psychology concerned with the way individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others. Focus is the individual within the group. |
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Term
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Definition
The rules that establish expected and accepted behavior. Prescribe proper behavior.
Norms vary by culture. |
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Term
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Definition
The maintenence or alteration of one's behavior to match the behavior and expectations of others. Occurs when people yield to real or imagined social pressure.
Conformity to rules that benefit the members of society in general is necessary for our survival as a species. |
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Term
| Solomon Asch's Classic Experiment (1950) |
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Definition
Devised a procedure on how we conform. The need to conform is likely to overwhelm our need to be correct or feel right in our judgements. It's the tendency to go along with majority.
(Participants were asked to which of three lines matched another line. Before answering, the participant heard other people answer incorrectly. The need to conform is likely to overwhelm our need to be correct or feel right in our judgements) |
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Term
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Definition
| A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority. |
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Term
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Definition
| Conformity that involves acting in accordance with social pressure while privatly disagreeing. |
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Term
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Definition
| Conformity that involves both acting and believing or agreeing, in accordance with social pressure. |
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Term
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Definition
| Stated that people are inclinded to change their behavior and follow outrageous and immoral orders. Set up a study in a prison for two weeks. The study was called off after 6 days. |
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Term
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Definition
Set up an experiment to find out how realistic such a claim from Zimbardo's experiment was.
His experiment had an apparatus to provide shocks to the subjects and to see if his accomplice would apply the shocks. 60% applied the shocks.
Milgram's experiment showed that most people in society must obey rules, respect authority if society is to survive. Unquestioned obedience can cause horrible acts. |
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Term
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Definition
If most members of a group already have a strong opinion on a matter, they will lean even more strongly in that direction after discussion.
In this situation, discussion serves the purposes of making the group more extreme in its views rather than opening a dialogue on differing opinions. |
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Term
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Definition
| Group members suppress doubts about an issue or decision for fear of being ostracized. Sometimes dominant members will silence dissenters; sometimes dissenters fail to speak up at all. |
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Term
| Freud and the Psychodynamic Theory of Personality |
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Definition
| Relates personality to the interplay of conflicting forces within the individual. The individual may not be aware of these forces that influence thought and behavior. |
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Term
| Freud's Search for the Unconscious |
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Definition
| He was influencd by the psychiatrist Josef Breuer, who encouraged patients to recall and discuss traumatic early life expriences in order to relieve the physical complaints he believed to be a manifestation of the unreleased emotions associated with these events. |
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Term
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Definition
| The theraputic release of pent-up emotional tension. |
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Term
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Definition
Contains memories, emotions and thoughts, some of which are irrational or socially unacceptable.
These thoughts and feelings influence our behavior although we may not be aware of them. Psychoanalysis brings these to consciousness to acheive catharsis and help the patient overcome dysfunctional impulses. |
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Term
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Definition
Freud concluded that children wish to have sex with their opposite sex parent but realize that it is forbidden.
Little evidence to support this notion. |
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Term
| Stages of Psychosexual Development |
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Definition
| Developed by Freud, a framework to explain the development of personality over the course of childhood and adolescence. |
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Term
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Definition
Refers to all the strong and pleasurable sensations of excitement that arise from body stimulation.
Freud believed that how we manage this aspect of development influences nearly all aspects of our personality. |
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Term
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Definition
| A psychosexual energy. Freud proposed that the preferred channel for gratifying this desire changes over the lifespan. |
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Term
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Definition
| There are five stages, each with its own way for seeking gratification. During these stages, the pleasure-seeking energies focus on pleasure sensitive body areas called erogenous zones. |
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Term
| The Oral Stage (First Year of Life) |
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Definition
Infant derives psychosexual pleasure from stimulation of the mouth. (Breastfeeding, oral contact with other objects)
Oral fixation might involve problems with eating, drinking, substance use, and issues of dependence on/independence from others. |
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Term
| The Anal Stage (About 1 to 3 years old) |
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Definition
Child derives psychosexual pleasure from stimulation of the anal sphincter, the muscle that controls bowel movements. This is partly related to toilet training, which usually occurs at this stage.
Anal fixation might involve problems with extreme stinginess or need to maintain strict order. Sometimes the opposite is true, and the person is very wasteful and messy. |
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Term
| The Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years old) |
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Definition
Child derives intense psychosexual pleasure from stimulation of the genitals and becomes attracted to the opposite-sex parent.
Phallic fixation might involve fear of being castrated (in boys) or "penis envy" in girls. |
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Term
| The Latent Period (6 years to adolescence) |
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Definition
Child suppresses his or her psychosexual interest. Children play mostly with same sex peers.
There is some evidence that the "latent period" is a cultural artifact. Children in some non-industrialized societies do not experience a perios of "latency." |
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Term
| The Genital Stage (Adolescence and beyond) |
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Definition
The individual now has a strong sexual interest in other people. If he or she has completed the other stages successfully, primary psychosexual satisfaction will be gained from sexual intercourse.
The individual who is fixated in an early period of development has little libido left for this stage. |
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Term
| Freud's structure of personality |
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Definition
| According to Freud, there are three components to personality. |
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Term
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Definition
| Comprised of all of our biological drives that demand immediate gratification. The Id unconsciously strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, operating on the pleasure principle, demanding immdiate gratification. |
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Term
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Definition
| The rational, negotiating, and decision-making component of the personality. The ego functions as the "executive" and mediates the demands of the id and superego. |
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Term
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Definition
| The internalized values and rules we receive from our parents and society. The superego provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations. |
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Term
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Definition
Freud's model of personality involves conflicts and anxiety over unpleasent impulses and thoughts. Defense mechanisms function to relegate these unpleasant thoughts and feelings to the unconscious.
These mechanisms are considered healthy ways to suppress anxiety unless they prevent the person from effectively dealing with reality. |
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Term
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Definition
"Making Excuses" and reframing unpleasant events or actions as beneficial, justifiable or rational.
Offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions. |
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Term
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Definition
"Motivated Forgetting" of unnacceptable thoughts and feelings.
Banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. |
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Term
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Definition
A return to juvenile behavior.
Leads an individual faced with anxiety to retreat to a more infantile psychosexual stage. |
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Term
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Definition
| Refusal to acknowledge a problem. |
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Term
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Definition
Diversion of an unacceptable thought or impulse from its target to a less threatening one.
Shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, redirecting anger toward a safer outlet. |
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Term
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Definition
Involves presentation of one's thoughts or feelings as the extreme opposite of what they are.
Causes the ego to unconsciously switch unacceptable impulses into their opposites. People may express feelings of purity when they may be suffering anxiety from unconsious feelings about sex. |
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Term
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Definition
| The transformation of sexual or aggressive energies into acceptable and pro-social behaviors. |
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Term
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Definition
Attributing one's own undesirable characteristics or motives to other people.
Leads people to disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others. |
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Term
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Definition
His evidence was weak and some of his conclusions likely wrong.
However, he made some enduring and useful contributions to psychology.
Scholars argue about the extent to which Freud alone was responsible for formulating the following notions:
Humans apparently have a mental life that is at least partly unconscious.
People have conflicting motives.
Childhood experiences contribute to the development of adult personality and social behavior.
Relationships with people in our family-of-origin have some impact on relationships we have with others throughout life.
Sexual development has an impact of psychological development. |
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Term
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Definition
| Psychologists and others who adopted some parts of Freud's theory and modified other parts. |
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Term
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Definition
| She believed that Freud exaggerated the role of sexuality in human behavior and motivation, and misunderstood the motivations of women and the dynamics of family relationships. |
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Term
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Definition
Put a greater emphasis on the continuity of human experience and need for spiritual meaning in life.
He proposed existence of a "collective unconsious" reflecting the cumulative experiences of all of our ancestors, as well as acrchetypes:figures and themes that emerge repeatedly in human history and across cultures. |
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Term
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Definition
Founded the school of "individual psychology".
He believed that childhood tensions were social and not sexual. A child struggles with an inferiority complex during growth and strives for superiority and power. |
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Term
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Definition
Relates specific behaviors to specific experiences.
Often the experiences from which we learn are those of other people in our environment. |
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Term
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Definition
Deals with values, beliefs, and consciousness, including spirituality and guiding principles by which people live their lives.
Personality depends on what people believe and how they perceive and understand the world. |
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Term
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Definition
| Proposed that we as individuals are motivated by a hierarchy of needs. Beginning with psysiological needs, we try to reach the state of self-actualization- fulfilling our potential. |
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Term
| Characteristics of a self-actualized person (developed by Maslow, not a scientific list) |
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Definition
An outlook that emphasizes problem-solving.
Enjoyment of life.
A good sense of humor. |
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Term
| Person-Centered Perspective |
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Definition
| Carl Rogers said that unconditional positive regard is an attitude of acceptance of others despite their failings. |
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Term
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Definition
| Carl Rogers asked people to describe themselves as they would like to be (ideal) and as they actually are (real). If the two descriptions were close, the individual had a positive self-concept. |
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Term
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Definition
| An image of the person someone would like to be. In the Rogerian model, psychological distress is generated from the mismatch perceived between the self-concept and the ideal self. |
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Term
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Definition
| A consistent, long-lasting tendency in behavior, such as sociability, shynss or assertiveness. |
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Term
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Definition
| A temporary activation of particular behavior. |
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Term
| The Big Five Personality Traits |
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Definition
| Neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to new experience. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to experience unpleasant emotions very easily. |
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Term
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Definition
| A tendency to seek stimulation and enjoy the company of other people. |
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Term
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Definition
| A tendency to be compassionate rather than antagonistic towards others. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to show self-discipline, to be reliable, and to strive for competence and achievement. |
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Term
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Definition
| Refers to a tendency to enjoy new experiences and new ideas. |
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Term
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Definition
A standardized test is administered according to strict rules and interpreted using aprescribed rubric.
Before it's release, it is tested thoroughly.
The most widely used of these tests is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) |
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Term
| The Minnesota Personality Inventory (MMPI) |
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Definition
The most widely researched and used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders.
Questions designed to measure dimensions of personality and in detecting conditions like depression and psychosis. |
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Term
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Definition
The Rorschach is composed of 10 ambiguous inkblots. Person taking the test is asked to intepret each of the blots.
Clinicians disagree over whether this test should still be used and how effective it is. |
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Term
| The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) |
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Definition
| Subject requested to make up a story for each picture. The assumption behind the test is that the story told is actually about the test-taker. |
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Term
| The Emotional Stroop Test |
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Definition
Requires a person to look at a list of words and say the color of the ink in which the word is printed.
The assumption is that the task will be more difficult and the pauses of the subject will be longer when trying to say the color of the words that relate to areas of concern. |
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Term
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Definition
Most of us feel sad, anxious or angry occasionally. Our moods change, we develop bad habits and we have "funny" beliefs.
Mental health diagnoses are reserved for people with problems that seriously interfere with their lives. |
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Term
| Defining Abnormal Behavior |
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Definition
There is probably no definition of "abnormal" that can't be questioned.
When someone behaves in bizarre and dangerous ways, but insists that they are fine, many people who are in fact suffering from mental illness could not be diagnosed and treated. |
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Term
| Multiple Personality Disorder (AKA Dissociative Identity Disorder) |
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Definition
There is alternation between two or more personalities.
Each has its own disposition, behavior, and name, as if each were a separate person.
It is most likely that cases of this disorder were promoted by suggestion of over eager therapists. |
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Term
| The BioPsychoSocial Model |
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Definition
The predominant view in western culture uses this model to understand mental illness.
Uses a combination of Biological Roots, Psychological Roots, and Social and cultural context. |
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Term
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Definition
| Include genetic factors, injury, disease processes that result in abnormal brain development, damage, imbalances of neurotransmitters and hormones, all of which can result in abnormal behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| An individual's life history and experiences contribute to his or her ability to cope and degree of vulnerability to stress. |
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Term
| Social and Cultural Context |
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Definition
| People are greatly influenced by how other people act toward them and the expectations people hold for them. |
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Term
| The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) |
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Definition
Lists acceptable labels for all psychological disorders.
Lists symptoms and criteria for making diagnoses and contains information on differential diagnosis- making distinctions between similar diagnoses.
Diagnosis is made along five axes (lists) |
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Term
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Definition
A treatment of psychological disorders by methods that include an ongoing relationship between a trained therapist and a client.
Psychotherapy is used for a wide variety of disorders. |
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Term
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Definition
| Based on theories of Freud. Methods relate personality to the interplay of conflicting forces in the person. |
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Term
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Definition
Uses free association and transference to bring unconscious materials to consciousness.
This produces catharsis. |
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Term
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Definition
| The release of pent-up emotions associated with unconscious thoughts and memories. |
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Term
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Definition
| The client thinks about a symptom or problem and then says everything that comes to mind related to it. This process is supposed to uncover hidden thoughts and feelings. |
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Term
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Definition
| Refers to the client's experience of feelings previously associated with a parent or other important figure that are "transferred" to the therapist. |
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Term
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Definition
| If a client disagrees with the therapist's interpretations, they may label this as a resistance, a continued repression that interferes with therapy. |
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Term
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Definition
| Improves functioning by changing people's thoughts and beliefs about situations. |
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Term
| Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET) |
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Definition
| Assumes that thoughts precede emotions, and that unpleasant feelings result from irrational thoughts. |
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Term
| Cognitive-Behavior Therapy |
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Definition
| Sets clear goals for changing behavior (like a behavioral therapist). |
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Term
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Definition
| Believe that people naturally strive to achieve their full potentials. The most common humanistic therapy is person-centered therapy, which Carl Rogers promoted. |
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Term
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Definition
| Therapist listens non-judgementally and provides unconditional positive regard, an ideal state like the regard that a loving parent has for a child. |
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Term
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Definition
Treats the person in the context of the family.
The assumption is that an individual's problems arise in a family setting.
The best way to deal with these is to improve family relationships and communication. |
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Term
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Definition
| Do not use a single method exclusively, but a combination of approaches. |
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Term
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Definition
| Where the therapist and client agree to a certain length, number of meetings, expectations and goals for the treatment are becoming more popular. |
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Term
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Definition
Involves treatment of many clients by one or two therapists on an ongoing basis.
Less expensive and allows the clients to help each other with advice and feedback. |
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Term
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Definition
| Work in a similar way to group therapy except there is no therapist involved. |
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Term
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Definition
Refers to the trend over the second part of the twentieth century of removing patients from mental hospitals.
As a result of this, many former patients are now homeless, in nursing homes, imprisoned or dead. |
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Term
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Definition
Insanity is a legal term, not a psychological one.
The insanity defense is extremely rare.
insanity.
If someone were to plead insanity, they'd be institutionalized for a very long time. |
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Term
| Preventing Mental Illness |
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Definition
Some psychologists, especially community psychologists, have started to create movement towards preventing mental illnesses.
Community psychologists focus on the needs of groups rather than individuals.
They look at various routes to circumventing mental illnesses or lessening its damaging effects. |
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Term
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Definition
| Methods are aimed at stopping mental illness before it begins. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Involves identifying a disorder in its early stages and relieving it. |
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Term
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Definition
| Taking steps to preventan illness from becoming more serious. |
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Term
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Definition
| Refers to a certain amound of fear and caution in the face of potential hazards. |
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Term
| Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) |
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Definition
| The experience of almost constant and exaggerated worry. |
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Term
|
Definition
Characterized by frequent periods of anxiety and occasional attacks of panic.
Experienced by 1-3% of adults. More women than men diagnosed. |
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Term
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Definition
| Rapid deep breathing. Causes the body to react as if suffocation were occurring. |
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Term
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Definition
| Severe avoidance of other people and fear of doing anything in public. |
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Term
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Definition
| An intense fear of public places. Avoids normal activities like food shopping, driving. Person becomes house-bound. |
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Term
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Definition
| The most common type disorder involving avoidance behaviors. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
| Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder |
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Definition
Two symptoms that comprise it:
Obsessions are repetetive, unwelcomed streams of thought. Obsessive thoughts lead to compulsive actions.
Compulsions are repetetive, almost irresistable actions. Checking and Cleaning are two very common compulsive behaviors. |
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Term
| Substance Dependence (Addiction) |
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Definition
Individuals who find it difficult or impossible to quit a dangerous habit are said to have an addiction or dependence on it.
Two symptoms involved in drug addiction:
Tolerance and Withdrawal |
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Term
|
Definition
| Decreased effects of a given dose. |
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Term
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Definition
| Unpleasant sensations when the drug is not used. |
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Term
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Definition
| Location of dopamine receptors in the brain that drugs stimulate. This area is critical for the motivating effects of many experiences. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Develops gradually over the lifespan. It is equally prevalent in men and women. It is generally less severe in its health consequences. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Has an early onset. It is much more prevalent in men and more severe. |
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Term
|
Definition
| AA is a self-help group comprised of people who abstain from alcohol use and offer help and support to each other. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Refers to reducing consumption of alcohol from dependent/abusive to moderate levels. |
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Term
| Opiate (Heroin, Morphine, etc.) Dependence |
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Definition
| Some opiate addicts go "cold turkey" to stop using. Recovery programs commonly offer Methodone as a less dangerous replacement for opiates. |
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Term
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Definition
The person experiences little interest in anything, little pleasure, and little motivation to be productive. Loss of interest in food and sex.
Sleep abnormalities are associated with depression. This person may attempt suicide. |
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Term
| Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) |
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Definition
| Depression associated with a particular season of the year. |
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Term
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Definition
| Where the person affected by SAD sits in front of a bright light every day. |
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Term
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Definition
| A cycling of mood between periods of depression and mania. Mania is a state of extreme exuberance and agitation. |
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Term
| Genetic Predisposition to Depression |
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Definition
| Having close biological relatives who were diagnosed with depression increases one's probability of becoming depressed. |
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Term
| Sex Differences in Depression |
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Definition
| Women experience more rapid hormonal changes than men do. |
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Term
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Definition
| Men generally try to distract themselves when they are feeling depressed. Women tend to dwell on their feelings more. |
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Term
| Treatments for depression |
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Definition
| Cognitive Therapy, Antidepressant Medications, and Electroconvulsive Shock Therapy. |
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Term
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Definition
| Involves the experience of at least one episode of mania. |
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Term
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Definition
| Involves alternation between major depression and hypomania, a milder form of mania. |
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Term
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Definition
| The split in schizophrenia refers to a disconnection of the intellectual and emotional aspects of the personality. |
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Term
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Definition
| The presence of inappropriate behaviors |
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Term
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Definition
| The absence of appropriate behaviors. |
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