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Definition
| The process of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes, or values, through our experience, research, or teaching, that causes a change of behavior that is measurable. |
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Definition
| How we respond to the environment. When an animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus (signal) with another stimulus. |
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| Psychologists who insist that psychologists should study only observable, measurable behaviors, not mental processes. Believe that the environment plays a powerful role in molding behavior. |
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| Methodological Behaviorists |
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Definition
| Study only events that they can measure and observe. They sometimes use those observations to make inferences about internal events. They INFER |
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Definition
| Believe that internal states are caused by events in the environment, or by genetics. The ultimate cause of behavior is observable events, not internal states. |
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Definition
| Argued that all animal and most human behavior could be explained with stimulus-response psychology. |
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Term
| Stimulus-Response Psychology |
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Definition
| Attemts to explain behavior in terms of how each stimulus triggers a response. (Ex: Flinching from a blow and shading one's eyes from strong light) |
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Definition
| An assumption that all behavior has a cause and effect |
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| The assumptions of behaviorism |
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Definition
| If enough is known about an individual's experiences, influences, and genetics, we can predict that individual's behavior. |
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Definition
Founder of Classical Conditioning.
Physiologist who won a Nobel Prize for his research on digestion. |
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Term
| Unconditioned Stimulus (US) |
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Definition
| A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response withough any prior conditioning (no learning needed for the response to occur; when animals react to stimulus without training). |
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Term
| Unconditioned Response (UR) |
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Definition
| An unlearned reaction/response to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without prior conditioning. An action that the unconditioned stimulus automatically brings out. |
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Term
| Conditioned Stimulus (CS) |
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Definition
| A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response. It is a stimulus we react to only after we've learned about it. |
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Term
| Conditioned Response (CR) |
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Definition
| A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of prior conditiolning. You learned how to react to the stimulus. |
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Definition
| The process that strengthns a conditioned response. When an organism learns something new, it has been "acquired". (Classical Conditioning) |
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Definition
| To extinguish a classically conditioned response, the conditioned stimulus is repeadedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. This is a gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR tendency. (Classical Conditioning) |
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Definition
| The temporary return of an extinguished response. Sometimes there will be a reappearance of a response that had been extinguished. The recovery can occur after a period of non-exposure to the CS. (Classical Conditioning) |
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Definition
| A response to a specific stimulus becomes associated to other stimuli (similar stimuli) and now occurs to those other similar stimuli. (Ex. Child gets bit by black lab, becomes afraid of all dogs) |
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Definition
| Learning to respond to one stimulus and not another. Thus, an organism becomes conditioned to respond to a specific stimulus and not to other stimuli. |
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Definition
| Developed a simple, behaviorist explanation of learning. He used a learning curve, a graph of the changes of behavior that occur over successive trials of an experiment, to record how quickly cats learned to escape from a maze. He noted that cats would learn more quickly if the response selected produced an immediate escape. He observed that the escape from the box acted as a reinforcement for the behavior that led to the escape. |
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Definition
| A graph of the changes in behavior that occur over successive trials of an experiment. |
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Definition
States that behaviors that are followed by pleasant consequences will be strengthened, and will be more likely to occur in the future. Conversely, behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be weakened, and will be less likely to be repeated in the future. Thorndike's law of effect is another way of describing what modern psychologists now call operant conditioning.
Learning = Behavior + Consequences |
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Definition
| Founder of Operant Conditioning. Believed much of behavior could be studied in a single, controlled environment such as the skinner box. Instead of observing behavior in the natural world, he attempted to study behavior in a closed, controlled unit. He used shaping to train animals. (Ex. Pigeon Experiment) |
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Definition
| Can be defined as a type of learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened if it is reinforced. It is weakened if it is punished (or not reinforced). Involves increasing a behavior by following it with a reward or decreasing a behavior by following it with punishment. |
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Definition
| Using reward or reinforcement to produce progressive changes in behavior in a desired direction. This is a behavioral term that refers to graducally molding or training an organism to perform a specific response by reinforcing any responses that are similar to the desired response. A reinforcement technique used to teach animals or people behaviors that they have never performed before. |
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Definition
| An event that increases the probability that a response will be repeated. A reinforcement can be either the presentation of a desirable item such as money or food, or the removal of an unpleasant stimulus, such as verbal nagging or physical pain. |
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Definition
A parent praises a child for excellent performance on a test.
A waiter receives an extra large tip for good service. |
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Definition
| An event that decreases the probability of a response. A punishment can be removal of a desirable condition such as driving privileges or the presentation of an unpleasant condition such as physical pain. Punishment tends to be ineffective except for temporarily suppressing undesirable behavior. |
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Definition
| An operant conditioning method where behaviors are reinforced by opportunities to engage in the next behavior. (Ex: Most of us first learn to eat with utensils, and gradually acquire the preceding activities of getting and preparing food. |
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Definition
| Something that increases the likelihood of the preceding response. |
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Definition
| Are unconditioned reinforcers like food and water. Unconditioned reinforcers meet primary, biological needs and are found to be reinforcing for almost everyone. Food and drink are unconditioned reinforcers. |
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Definition
| Are conditioned reinforced like money, because it can be exchanged for food and water which are necessary reinforcers. |
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Definition
| Often called "grandma's rule," states that a high frequency activity can be used to reinforce low frequency behavior. (Ex: Finish your VEGETABLES (Low Freq.) before you can eat any ICE CREAM (High Freq.) |
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| Conditioned Taste Aversion |
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Definition
| An association between eating something and getting sick after a single trial. |
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Definition
| Founder of Observational Learning. Stated that we learn many behaviors before we attempt them for the first time. (Social-Learning Approach) |
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Definition
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| What are the two cheif components of social learning? |
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Definition
| Modeling and Imitation. (Much learning, especially in humans, results from observing the behaviors of others and from imagining the consequences of our own). |
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Definition
| A term we use to describe how an animal learns by watching others. (Ex: Bandura showing children aggressive/violent films and observing their tendencies) Another aspect of social-learning is that people are more likely to imitate behaviors that have been rewarding for other people. |
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Term
| Self-Efficacy in Social Learning |
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Definition
| We tend to imitate people we admire. However, we do not model ourselves after every admirable figure we encounter. We immitate others only when we have a sense of self-efficacy, when we perceive ourselves as being able to perform the task successfully. |
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Definition
| The process by which we store and retrieve info. A general term for the storage, retention and recall of events, info and procedures. |
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Term
| What is the quality of an individual's memory based on? |
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Definition
| The nature of the info being retained and recalled, the level of interest in it, and its significance to that individual. |
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Definition
| Your brain never loses anything. Once a perception or thought is placed into your memory, it stays there forever. |
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Term
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Definition
| What we call forgetting is either the inability to recall stored info, or the failure to store info. Forgetting tends to begin in seconds unless rehearsal is permitted. |
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Definition
| Invented over 2300 nonsense syllables and put them into random lists. Over 6 years he memorizd thousands of lists of nonsense syllables. |
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Term
| Lists and Serial-Order Effects |
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Definition
| We tend to remember the beginning and end of a list of related items better than the middle. |
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Definition
| The tendency to remember the beginning of the list. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to remember the items at the end of the list. |
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Term
| Meaningfulness and Distinctivness |
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Definition
Studies of memory show meaningful materials are easier to remember.
Distinctive or unusual information is easier to retain. This tendency is called the von Restorff effect. |
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Definition
| The tendency of people to remember unusual items better than more common items. |
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Definition
A memory task in which the individual must reproduce material from memory without cue.
Simplest method for tester but hardest for person being tested. |
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Definition
Reminders or hints that help us retrieve info from long-term memory.
(Young Children depend on these) |
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Definition
| Gives the person being tested significant hints about the correct answer. (Fill-in-the-blank) |
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Term
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Definition
| Requires person being tested to identify the correct item from a list of choices. (Multiple-Choice Test) |
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Term
| Savings (relearning) Method |
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Definition
| Compares the speed at which someone relearns material against learning something new. The amount of time saved between the original learning and the relearning is a measure of memory. |
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Definition
Your ability to retain info that you've put real effort into learning.
All of the processes that were tested by Ebbinghaus involved this.
(Memory that we are aware we are using) |
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Term
| Implicit or Indirect Memory |
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Definition
| Any experience that influences us without our awareness. This is your ability to remember info you did not deliberately try to learn. Holds trivial facts (Ex: Song Lyrics) |
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Definition
| Fact Memory. The ability to state a fact, info, names, dates, faces. It stores why, how, when, where, what, who. |
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Definition
| Skills Memory. Memory of how to do something. It's conditioned responses like writing, riding a bike, and typing. |
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Definition
| Dealing with principles of knowledge. Stores meanings of words. |
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Definition
| Containing events and details of life history. Retention of info about what happened to you. |
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Definition
| A process that activates implicit memory. |
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| Information-Processing View of Memory |
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Definition
| Draws analogy between a computer and the workings of memory in the human brain. |
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Term
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Definition
| First stage of memory processing. (Perception) Very brief stage that registers everything that is percived in the moment we call "now" |
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Term
| Short-Term or Working Memory |
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Definition
| Capacity to retain info for 30 seconds. Stage after sensory memory. |
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Term
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Definition
| A relatively permanent storage of mostly meaningful information. (Birthdate, address, SS#, parents) |
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Term
| Decay of Short and Long-Term Memory |
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Definition
| Info that has been stored in long-term memory may be vulnerable to the effects of interference, but it generally does not decay due to the effects of time alone. |
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Term
| Capacities of Short and Long-Term Memory |
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Definition
Most normal adults can immediately repeat a list of about seven bits or pieces of info, with variations in range from five to nine items.
It can be expanded through techniques such as chunking into larger, meaningful units. |
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Definition
| Grouping or packing info into units, making info more manageable to remember. |
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Term
| Three Mental Operations Required for Memory |
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Definition
| Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval |
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Definition
| Transfer of info into your memory. |
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Definition
| Holding info for later use. Filing it away. |
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Definition
| Recovering info from storage. Finding it. |
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Term
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Definition
| The best strategy for anyone who needs to learn a lot of material is to space out the study sessions. |
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Term
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Definition
| To remember something for the long-term, study and review it under varying conditions with substantial intervals between sessions. |
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Term
| The Influence of Emotional Arousal |
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Definition
The greater the emotional arousal associated with an event, the greater the likelihood that the event will be remembered.
During stressful or emotional events, the sympathetic nervous system works to boost production of the hormones cortisol and adrenaline.
This is usually accompanied by increased stimulation of the amygdala. |
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Term
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Definition
| Any memory aid that is based on encoding each item in a special way. |
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Term
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Definition
| If an individual learns several sets of related materials, the retention of the old material makes it harder to retain new material, and the learning of the new materials makes it harder to retain the old. |
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Term
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Definition
| When retaining old material makes it hard to recall new material. |
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Term
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Definition
| When learning new material makes it hard to recall old material. |
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Term
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Definition
| When you try to remember an event, you usually start with details you remember clearly, and fill in the gaps. |
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Definition
| The tendency to mold our recollection of the past to how events later turned out. |
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Term
| Memory for traumatic Events |
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Definition
| Research indicates that it is possible to forget a traumatic event, but whether this happens depends on a number of factors: age at the time, reaction of family, and type of event. Most people do not forget traumatic events if they happen later than age 3. |
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Definition
| Long lasting deep memories in response to traumatic events. |
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Definition
| A report that an individual believes to be a memory but actually never occurred. Memories are not always reliable due to forgetting and distortion. |
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Definition
| A memory of a traumatic event that is made unavailable for recall. |
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Term
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Definition
| A severe loss or deteriation of memory that is caused by brain damage or a traumatic event. |
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Term
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Definition
| A disorder that results in the loss of memory after an injury. Unable to store new memories. |
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Term
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Definition
| A disorder that results in loss of memory prior to an injury. (Ex: Could not remember many events that occurred between 1 and 3 years before his surgery) |
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Term
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Definition
| A degenerative memory disorder caused by chronic alcoholism and vitamin deficiency. Frontal lobe damage occurs as a result of stroke, head trauma, or Korsakoff's syndrome. |
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| Symptoms of Korsakoff's Syndrome |
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Definition
Apathy and Confusion
Retrograde Amnesia
Anterograde Amnesia
Confabulation (Wild guessing mixed in with correct info in an effort to hide memory gaps) |
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Definition
Condition of a slow decline in memory, problem solving ability, learning ability and judgement.
Alzheimer's Disease is most common cause. |
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Term
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Definition
A degenerative brain diseease where the brain starts wearing down.
Nerve cell death in parts of the brain for memory.
Symptoms include repeating questions, forgetting how to do simple tasks, forgetting who you are and where you are. |
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Definition
| Refers to thinking, gaining knowledge, and dealing with knowledge. |
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Term
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Definition
| Is intimately related to the activities of cognition. It is a system of arbitrary symbols that can be combined to create an infinite number of meaningful statements. |
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Term
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Definition
| Study how people think and acquire knowledge, know what they know, how they imagine and how they solve problems. |
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Definition
| The tendency to respond selectively to stimuli. |
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Definition
| Finding an unusual feature or figure. A procedure for extracting info automatically or simultaneously across a large portion of the visual field. |
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Term
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Definition
| Finding a typical feature or figure. A procedure that considers only one part of the visual field at a time. |
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Term
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Definition
| When we intentionally shift our attention to a particuluar stimulus, it is difficult to attend to other things. |
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Term
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Definition
| When people are unable to detect the changes in parts of a scene when viewing it a second time. |
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Term
| Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) |
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Definition
| Characterized by easy distraction, impulsiveness, moodiness and inability to follow through on plans. |
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Term
| Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) |
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Definition
| Symptoms of ADD with additional noticeable fidgetiness. These disorders are estimated to occur in 3 to 10% of all children and about 70% of those afflicted are boys. There are ongoing disputes about the true nature of the disorder. |
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Term
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Definition
| We organize info about the world through the formation of categories. In general, wee categorize people, objects or events together when they have important qualities in common. |
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Term
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Definition
| A typical example of a category. We decide whether or not an object belongs in a category by determining how well it resembles the prototypical members of the category. |
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Term
| Conceptual Networks and Priming |
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Definition
Thinking about something usually means relating it to a network of related concepts.
It's difficult to think about something "by itself".
We have a hierarchy in mind of categories and subcategories.
The upper levels of the hierarchy are the more common, broadly shared characteristics.
The lower levels are the more distinctive or special characteristics.
This simplifies the process of classifying. |
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Definition
| When you hear about one concept, the other concepts that you associate with it are also primed or activated. (Ex: When you hear "car", you think of "drive" or "road") |
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Definition
| When a problem is well defined, we can apply a mechanical, repetetive, step-by-step procedure for arriving at the solution to the problem; an algorithm. |
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Definition
Problem solving by trial and error.
Simple, thinking strategies that allow us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently. Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms. |
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Term
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Definition
| Involves a sudden novel realization of a solution to a problem. Humans and animals have insight. |
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Term
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Definition
Insight strategies are used in cases where we have no idea whether or not we would be able to solve the problem.
Insight solutions often seem to be arrived at suddenly. |
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Term
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Definition
| Using our considerable ability to evaluate our own thinking. |
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Term
| Representativeness Heuristic |
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Definition
| The tendency to assume that if an item is similar to members of a particular category, it is also a member of the category. |
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Term
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Definition
| The data about the frequency or probability of a given item or event. |
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Term
| True or False?: People tend to use only the representativeness heuristic and fail to consider the frequency data. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| The strategy of assuming that how easily one can remember examples of an event is an indicator of how common that event actually is. (Ex: It is easier to think of people dying from car crashes than from stomach cancer, so you assume that you are more likely to die in a car crash) |
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Term
| Common Erros of Human Cognition |
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Definition
Overconfidence is our belief that our answers are more accurate than they actually are. We tend to be overconfident about our answers to difficult questions.
We are under-confident about our answers to easy questions, because statistically it is hard to be overconfident about answers that are entirely correct. |
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Term
| Properties of Motivated Behaviors |
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Definition
| Motivated individuals keep working until reaching their goal. They vary from time to time and one individual to the next. If an individual varies the behavior and persists until reaching a goal, it is a motivated behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| What activates and directs behavior. Lorenz and others proposed that animals behave in instinctive ways when certain energies reach a critical level. |
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Term
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Definition
| Motivation comes from within. A state of unrest or irritation that energizes one behavior after another until one of them removes the irritation. |
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Term
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Definition
| If motivation comes from outside sources. (External Motivations) |
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Term
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Definition
| Proposs that animals strive to reduce their drives as much as possible. |
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Term
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Definition
| The maintenence of an optimum level of biological conditions within an organism. (Temperature, hydration, nutrition, and weight) |
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Term
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Definition
| Incentives are external stimuli that pull us toward certain actions. Most motivated behaviors are controlled by a combination of drives and incentives. (Ex: You eat because you are hungry and also because the food looks appealing) |
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Term
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Definition
| A motivation to do an act for its own sake. It's stimulation or drive coming within, an activity we enjoy and find motivating. |
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Term
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Definition
| Based on the reinforcements and punishments that may follow an action. We get motivated by external forces, not within self. |
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Term
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Definition
| Sometimes providing extrinsic motivations for a behavior that is already intrinsically motivated may result in a reduction of the performance of that behavior. This idea predicts that if people are given more extrinsic motivation than needed to perform a task, the intrinsic motivation declines. |
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Term
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Definition
| Choosing a smaller payoff now to get a bigger payoff later. Sometimes individuals choose to get an unpleasant event over with to avoid experiencing dread, and will postpone a desirable event to enjoy the anticipation of it. |
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Term
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Definition
| A small area on the underside of the brain. Its sub-areas contribute to eating, drinking, sexual behavior, and other motivated activities. The location of several areas critical to food intake. Can make you fat or skinny. |
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Term
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Definition
| Appears to be critical for starting eating. Damage to this area will cause starvation through lack of interest in food. It is the "hunger center" of the brain. |
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Term
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Definition
| Appears to be critical for starting eating. Damage to this area will cause starvation through lack of interest in food. It is the "hunger center" of the brain. |
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Term
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Definition
| A condition in which a person refuses to eat an adequate amound of food and starves. |
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Term
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Definition
| Alternation between self-starvation and binging. |
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Term
| Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) |
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Definition
| A sexually transmitted disease that gradually destroys the body's immune system. Three most common modes of transmission: Blood Transfusion, sharing needles, and sexual contact. |
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Term
| Work Motivation: Goals and Deadlines |
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Definition
People appear to differ in levels of striving for accomplishment and excellence.
Most people enjoy competition to some degree and will work to outdo others and achieve a goal if there is a reasonable chance of succeeding.
Most people appear to require deadlines to help move them along to completion of a goal. |
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Term
| Overcoming Procrastination |
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Definition
| Confidence and formulation of specific plans to meet goals are two useful tools in overcoming procrastination. |
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Term
| The Mere Measurement Effect |
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Definition
| The principle that if one names an activity and estimates one's likelihood of engaging in that activity within a specific timeframe, one raises the chances of actually doing it. |
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Term
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Definition
Very high goals tend to promote good performanc, as long as the goals seem realistic.
Challenging goals require intrinsic motivation. Rewards are less motivating for difficult goals than they are for easy goals. |
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Term
| Scientific-Management Approach (Theory X) |
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Definition
| Most employees are lazy, indifferent and not creative. Work should be easy to perform and strictly supervised. |
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Term
| Human Relations Approach (Theory Y) |
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Definition
| Employees crave a sense of responsibility, variety of tasks, and a feeling of accomplishment. |
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Term
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Definition
Some factors are related to the job: Interest level, pay, coworkers and management.
Employee's personality also a factor.
Appears to be heritable (if other people in your family are happy with their work, chances are you will be also. |
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Term
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Definition
Some factors are related to the job: Interest level, pay, coworkers and management.
Employee's personality also a factor.
Appears to be heritable (if other people in your family are happy with their work, chances are you will be also. |
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