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| cluster of prescribed actions- the behaviors we expect of those who occupy a particular social position |
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| tendency for people who agree to a small action to comply later with a larger one. example: Korean war and communism "brainwashing prisoners" |
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| Studied conformity. 3 different sized lines, chose which one was the longest. |
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| Normative social influence |
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| influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval |
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| Stanley Milgram's study showed that the test subjects were willing to electrocute the "learner" as long as the Test manager told them to. |
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| the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable |
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| the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group |
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| Factors that affect bystander intervention |
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1. Notice incident
2. Interprets incident as emergency
3. Assumes responsibility
If all 3 of these happen, the witness will attempt to help |
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| Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard |
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everyone misleads everyone else by defining the situation as trivial
ex: smoke in waiting room |
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| Fundamental attribution error |
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| tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition |
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| Showed that the person acts more like their costume and gives into the roll they are playing. |
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| Cognitive dissonance theory |
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| the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes. |
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| Informational social influence |
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| influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality |
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| Had an actor hooked up to be electrocuted for every wrong answer, the questioner would then shock the actor. Milgram studied the questioners compliance to keep shocking the actor even after his screams for it to stop. |
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| stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others. Example: person running faster against someone else oppose to a clock |
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| the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity |
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| the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives |
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| the tendency for any give bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present |
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| Diffusion of responsibility |
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| you think that someone else will get help and do something. EX: Kitty Genovese story |
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| analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information |
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| the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment |
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| Difference threshold (just noticeable difference) |
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| the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time |
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| the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus as in the cocktail party effect |
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| the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters |
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| retinal receptor celss that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. Detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations |
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| conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret |
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| the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina |
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| Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when conens don't respond |
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| the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster |
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| only seeing shades of one color |
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| only seeing shades of two colors |
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| the theory that opposing retinal processes enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red |
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| information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations |
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| the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time |
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| diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation |
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| a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening |
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| the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual |
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| the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina |
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| condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina |
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| condition in which far-away objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina |
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| the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there |
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| Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory |
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| theory that the retina contains three different color receptors-one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue-which when stimulated in combination can produce that perception of any color |
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| Optical illusions where an image causes a "ghost" image after staring at it for a certain length of time |
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| the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts |
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| the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events |
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| the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses |
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| depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes |
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| a binocular cue for perceiving depth: by comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance |
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| objects that are similar in size, we perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image as farther away |
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| We perceive objects higher in our field of vision as farther away |
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| When moving and your eyes are fixated on a certain point or object, the objects in front of it appear to move backwards as objects behind it appear to move with you |
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| perceiving objects as unchanging (consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change |
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| an orgainzed whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendancy to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. class example: invisible cube |
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| the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings |
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| a binocular cue for perceiving depth. the greater the inwards strain of the eyes, the closer the object |
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| If one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer |
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| depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone |
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| Because light from distant objects passes through more atmosphere, we perceive hazy objects as farther away than sharp, clear objects |
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| a gradual change from a coarse, distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture signals increasing distance. Objects far away appear smaller and more densely packed |
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| relative brightness (shading) |
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| Nearby objects reflect more light to our eyes |
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| type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. EX: pavlov's dog |
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| in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previous neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus |
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| in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth |
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| the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses |
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| in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus |
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Hard to Identify reinforcers
Reinforcer conflicts (e.g., peers)
Reinforcer decrease effectiveness over time
Reinforcer must be maintained
Overjustification effect |
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| strengthens a response by reducing or removing an undesirable stimulus. EX: snooze button on alarm, aspiring to relieve headache. If I ___, ___will disappear |
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| strengthens a response by presenting a typically pleasurable stimulus after a response. EX. money, attention, approval If I ___, then I get ____ |
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| Variable-interval schedule |
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| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals |
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| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses |
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| the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior |
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| in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response |
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| in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically-triggers a response |
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| Extinguishing behavior/extinction |
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| the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus |
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| the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response |
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| a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher |
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| an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior |
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| in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows |
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| In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number or responses |
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| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed |
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