2 word sentences

leaves out small/insignificant words

holophrase

underextension/overextension

joint attention

1 word that expresses entire thought

(ex: "juice")

underextension- 1 word used too narrowly

overextension-1 word used too broadly (example: car=everything w wheels)

joint-attention- supports lang. development. state when child and CG stare at same obj. CG comments and child sees

Piaget

sensorimotor period

Sensorimotor Stages (6)

kids "actively learn"- 

schemes, adaptation/organizaion

Schemes- built through adaptation

adaptation:

assimiliation, accomodation

Organization

assimiliation- new info into existing schemes

accomodation- changing schemes to accomodate new info

organization- internal rearranging/linking of schemes

Primary Circular Reactions

(birth-4 months)

circular reactions- infants build schemes by repeating chance events caused by their own motor activity

substage 1- newborn reflexes

substage 2- first acquired adaptations

Secondary Circular Reactions 

(violation of expectation method- Renee Baillargeon- deals w/ obj permanence- babies have notion as early as 2 1/2 months)

(4 months- 1yr)

substage 3- making interesting sights last

substage 4- new adaptations and anticipation

goal directed behavior- intentional coordination of schemes to solve simple problems

object permanence-objects continue to exist when out of sight 

Tertiary circular reactions

(1- 2 y.o)

substage 5- active experimentation: "little scientists", kids repeat actions w variation

substage 6- mental representations

deferred imitation- kids remember actions and copy them when model is NOT present

make-believe play- kids act out everyday/imaginary act.

Information Processing System

sensory register--> short term mem. --> long term memory

these structures remain constant throughout life, but capacity of each structure changes w maturity

infantile amnesia

notion that we cannot remember things before 3 y.o.

factors:

brain maturation

autobiographical memory is linked to verbal abilities

Simcock & Hayne-

study of infantile amnesia

used The Shrinking Machine

Findings:

revealed that children < 3 y.o had great nonverbal memory

verbal recall increases drastically b/w ages 3-4 (amnesia barrier)

3 theories of Language Development

Behaviorist- kids are taught (Skinner)

Nativist-kids teach selves, innate (Chomsky)

Interactionist- combination b/w kid's innate abilities and environment fostering abilities

universal language sequence

cooing(2 m.o.)-->babbling(4-8m.o.--experience-expectant)-->1st words-->naming explosion-->2 word sentences(aka "telegraphic speech"--gramatically correct)-->multi word sent.

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

basic problem at

1 y.o

2 y.o

theory relies of quality of caregiving

1 y.o.- trust vs. mistrust- resolved through nurturing

2 y.o.- autonomy vs. shame/doubt- resolved through reasonable choices and suitable guidance

Basic Emotions in First Year

social referencing

emotions learned-social referencing (look at adults around and learn how to respond)

happiness-social smile, laughter

anger- general distress, increases ar. age 2

fear- begins during 2nd 1/2 of 1st yr.- stranger anxiety, fear keeps kids in check so tey don't get themselves in trouble and keeps them close to parents-secure base

temperament

3 types (+ unclassified)

affected by 2 factors

indiv. differences b/w reactivity(speed/intensity of emot. arousal) and self-regulation(strategies to mod. reactivity)

Temperament is affected by heredity and enviornment (Goodness-of-fit-match of one's temperament to environment)

types: easy (40%, most common), difficult, and slow-to-warm up

Attachment

4 kinds

"strange situation"-Ainsworth

Bowlby-Ethological thry phases of att- 

pre attachment

att in the making- prefer CG

Clear-cut- secure base

Reciprical-negoitonetc

close emotional tie b/w kid and CG that develops during 1st yr 

Secure

Avoidant 

Resistant

Disoriented

"strange situation"- used to observe diff types of attachments through infant's reactions to CG, CG leaving room, CG reunion

baby explores

baby cries when CG leaves

is easily comforted when CG returns

baby explores

does NOT cry

avoids/ignors CG upon return

baby does NOT explore toys (stays close to CG)

does cry when CG leaves

is angry upon return (hugs mom while pushing her away)

very inconsistant

"stilling"- stops in tracks in state of heightened alert

secure-->secure att.

objective descriptions

dismissing-->avoidant att.

lack of memory/stereotyp desc.

preoccupied-->resistant att.

all over the place

physical body growth -

ages 2->6=slimmer/more muscular

influenced by 3 factors

genes/nutrition

ethnicity/culture

SES

Left Hem- most growth age-3-6

language and Handedness

Righ Hem- much more gradual growth

frontal lobe- most growth age 2-6

planning/ organization 

speed of processing- myelination (affected by maturation, practice/experience)

gross motor skills

Fine motor skills- self help

drawing- Age 2 (think self= great/ dont compare self to others)- scribbles

Age 3/4- 1st representational forms/boundaries & ppl (tadpole drawings)

Age 5/6- more realistic

Piaget's Preoperational Stage

(2-7 y.o.)

gain in mental representation

obvious changes in representational/ symbolic thought

Gains:

make-believe play- sociodramatic play (w peers)

symbolic/real life relations

Piaget's Preoperational Stage

(2-7 y.o.)

Limitations

egocentrism-failure to distinguish symb. viewpoints of others from self.

animistic thinking- inanimate obj. have lifelike qualities (thoughts, wishes, feelings)

lack of conservation (phys. traits of obj remain same despite changes in appearance)

centration- focus on 1 aspect while neglecting all others

irreversibility- inablity to mentally reverse series of steps

Lack of Hierarchical Classification - "class inclusion problem"

child is viewed as apprentice

guided participation-kid's are taught by more knowledgeable ppl

scaffolding-adjusting amt of help one gives to match child's performance level

zone of proximal develop-tasks too diff. to do alone but can be completed w guidance

language=key to cognitive devel.

private speech

Theory of Mind

Alison Gopnik

metacognition, thinking about thinking

-awareness of mental life (infancy-3 y.o.)

-mastery of false beliefs (~4 y.o)

Gopnik-preschoolers w/ siblings have better understanding of false beliefs, found differences in lang styles reflect culture,

also found children use social referencing.

Language Development-

fast mapping

Language errors

childhood-->sensitive period

fast mapping- way kids quickly learn words by mentally charting them into categories

language errors:

harder time w words of time/place/comparison words/metaphors

overregularization-applying grammatical rules when it is the exception

• focused too much on preschooler's limitations
• tasks given to kid's=too unfamiliar/complex=illogical thought

Erikson's 3rd Stage 

Initiative vs. Guilt

child feels sense of purposefuleness

conscience development= little guilt, high self-esteem, positive self-concept, empathy(affected by temperament/parenting)/prosocial behavior (actions that benefit another person w/out expected reward)

improved self-regulation--delay of gratification (Marshmellow Experiment)

-nonsocial- solitary play, onlooker

-parallel- similar games near other children

-associative- interact/share toys but not mutual/reciprocal

-cooperative- mutual/ reciprocal

instrumental aggression-child wants obj/ space and pushes/shouts to get it

hostile aggression-aimed at hurting someone

physical-

verbal

relational-socially exclude

sources:temperament/gender, family-inconsistant/harsh pun., media violence!

Morality foundations of

Psychoanalytic thry

Social learning

cog deve. 

psychoanalytic thry- stressed emotional side of conscience

parents/guilt=motivators for good behavior

social learning- stresses moral behavior through reinforcements and modeling 

cognitive-developmental perspective- children as active thinkers

Gender Typing

Gender Identity

G Stereotyping

G typing-development of G. behaviors/ G-linked preferences valued by society

G identity-image of self as Masculine/Feminine

androgyny- high in b/ m/f personality charac (more adaptive)

children's beliefs (by 3 y.o)=rigid (espec for boys)

G segregation- by age 6 is very pronounced, children prefer same-sex playmates

chaneling- parents give diff sexes diff activities (boys=mow lawn, girls=do dishes)

Gender Identity Theories:

Soc. learning

cognitive-developmental

Gender schema

Social Learning- G identity is shaped through modeling/reinforcements of behavior around

Cog. Developmental-G identity shaped through cognition and idea of G constancy (G=permanent/biological)

Gender Schema- combination of Soc. learn and cog. Deve.-- environmental pressures + individual cognition shapes G identity

Authoritative-most succesful style

acceptance/warmth- high

involvement-high

autonomy granting-fair/firm

control-adaptive

Authorotarian-anxious, unhappy kids

acceptance/warmth- low

involvement- low

autonomy granting-low, "b/c i said so"

control- high coercive control-strict/phys pun.

Permissive-parents=inconsistant, kids=rebellious, independent, disobediant

acceptance/warmth- high

involvement- either too high or too low

autonomy granting-high

control-little/ no

Uninvolved-kids= antisocial 

acceptance/warmth- low

involvement- low

autonomy granting-indifferent

control- little/no

cross-cultural variation- 

hispanic families-stress parental authority

western families-warmer

Chinese-more controlling/less warm

low SES- expect more immediate obedience 

effects of corporal punishment 

(Strauss, Kazdin, Benjet)

effects are conditional-depend on frequency/intensity

poorer parent/child relations, more aggressive/angry, antisocial, likely to be victim of abuse or abusive

"myth of harmfulness"- bc effects cannot be seen right away

>20% of ideal weight

BMI > 95 % based on weight/sex

causes- low SES, fat parents, poor eating, low exercise, TV (25% of obesity due to TV viewing)

consequences- 

physical: high blood pressure/cholesterol, diabetes, respiraory/sleep disorders

psychological: depression, stereotyped, bad stigma, isolated, low school-achievement

Piaget's

Concrete Operational Stage

(7-11 y.o.)

conservation, classification, seriation, spatial reasoning

thinking-->logically, organized, flexible (w concrete things, not abstractly). affected by cultural variation- (Brazilian street children)=culture, experience, schooling

conservation-decentration, reversibility

classification- more precise w "class inclusion problem"- collies= subcategory of dog

seriation- ability to mentally order items by their quantative charac (length, weight)

transitive inference- mental seriation

spatial reasoning- kids have more accurate understanding of space

cognitive mapping- more accurate und. of large-scale space (landmarks (preschool)-->landmarks on traveled route (8-10 y.o.)-->accurate view of large-scale space (end of mid. school))

Concrete Operational Stage 

Limitations

children can only think logically ab concrete info 

NO logical abstract thinking

continuum of acquisition- gradual mastery of info occurs step-step. can be applied to specific problem not alltypes of problems

Information Processing

changes during Concrete Operational Stage

greater speed/capacity, gain in inhibition

attention-  more flexible

more selective

ability for planning

memory strategies- improves w attentino

rehearsal, organization, elaboration (making a relationship b/w 2 objects of diff categories. example: fish & pipe. "The fish is smoking the pipe")

IQ

Stanford-Binet/WISC-R

indiv/group diff

stereotype threat

Stanford-Binet- knowledge/fact oriented

WISC-R-designed to eliminate cultural bias

Individual/group differences- race- effects communication/teaching style

SES

heritability/genetics

test biases- culturally biased, person's potential changes w/ time. IQ tests ignore many types of int.

stereotype threat-fear of being judged on basis of neg. stereotype

Sternberg's

Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence

3 interacting inteligences that must be balanced to achieve success

analytical intelligence-info processing

creative intelligence-applied to novel problems

practical intelligence- applied to everyday

Gardner's

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

dismisses idea of general intelligence. 8 independent int.:

linguistic

logical/math

musical

spatial

bodily 

etc.

Cross Cultural Comparisons: Academic Achievement

Harold Stevenson

High SES- hierarchical style/knowledge training questions 

Low SES- collaborative style/real life questions

Stevenson-studied fam. in Taiwan/Japan/Minneapolis

asians outperform US

FINDINGS: cultural valuing of academic achievemnt

emphasis on effort NOT innate ability