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| the study of mind, brain and behavior |
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| the arguments concerning whether psychological characteristics are biologically innate or acquired through education, experience and culture |
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| a fundamental psychological issue that considers whether mind and body are separate and distinct or whether the mind is simply the subjective experience of the physical brain |
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| in psychological science, a theory that emphasizes the inherited, adaptive value of behavior and mental activity throughout the history of species |
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| in evolutionary theory, the physical characteristics, skills or abilities that increase the chances of reproduction or survival and are therefore likely to be passed along to future generations |
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| Darwin's theory that those who inherit characteristics that help them adapt to their particular environments have a selective advantage over those who do not. |
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| a theory based on the idea that the whole of personal experience is different from simply the sum of its constituent elements |
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| the mental processes that operate below the level of conscious awareness |
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| a method developed by Sigmund Freud that attempts to bring the contents of the unconscious into conscious awareness so that conflicts can be revealed essential to study "unobservable events" - opposite of behaviorist theory |
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| a psychological approach that emphasizes the role of environmental forces in producing behavior |
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| the study of how people think, learn and remember |
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| the study of group dynamics in relation to psychological processes |
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| a systematic way of evaluating information to reach reasonable conclusions |
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| a systematic procedure of observing and measuring phenomena to answer questions about what happens, when it happens, what causes it, and why |
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| a model of interconnected ideas and concepts that explains what is observed and makes predictions about future events |
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| a passive descriptive study in which observers do not change or alter ongoing behavior |
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| a type of descriptive study in which the researcher is actively involved in the situation |
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designed specifically to examine the developmental changes that occur over time
same group studies over extended period over time |
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| comparing different groups to make inferences about both |
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| systematic erros in observation that occur because of an observer's expectations |
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| experimenter expectancy effect |
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| actual change in the behavior of the people or animals being observed that is due to observer bias |
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| a research method that examines how variables are naturally related in the real world, without any attempt by the researcher to alter them |
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| a research method that examines how variables are naturally related in the real world, without any attempt by the researcher to alter them |
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| control (or comparison) group |
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| the participants in a study that receive no intervention or an intervention different from the one being studied |
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| experimental (or treatment) group |
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| the participants in a study that receive the intervention |
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| in an experiment, the condition that is manipulated by the experiment to examine its impact on the dependent variable |
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| in an experiment, the measure that is affected by manipulation of the independent variable |
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| when researchers find a relationship between two variables in a correlational study they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable |
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| when the experimenter cannot directly manipulate the independent variable and therefore cannot be confident that another, unmeasured variable is not the actual cause of differences in the dependent variable |
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| anything that affects a dependent variable and may unintentionally vary between the experimental conditions of a study |
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| everyone in the group the experimenter is interested in |
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| when participants in different groups in an experiment differ systematically |
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the procedure for placing research participants into the conditions of an experiment
• Best way to make it so that ON AVERAGE the control and experimental groups are as similar as possible on any given measure |
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| a "study of studies" that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion |
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| culturally sensitive research |
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| studies that take into account the ways culture affects thoughts, feelings, and actions |
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| a research method of careful and systematic assessment and coding of overt behavior |
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| when the knowledge that one is being observed alters the behavior being observed |
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| a method of data collection in which people are asked to provide information about themselves, such as in questionnaires or surveys |
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| socially desirable responding/faking good |
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| when a person responds in a way that is most socially acceptable |
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| a research method in which researchers quantify perceptual or cognitive processes in response to a specific stimulus |
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| electroencephalogram (EEG) |
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| a device that measures electrical activity in the brain |
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| a range of experimental techniques that make brain structures and brain activity visible |
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| positron emission tomography (PET) |
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| a method of brain imaging that assesses metabolic activity by using a radioactive substance injected into the bloodstream |
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| magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) |
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| a method of brain imaging that produces high quality images of the brain |
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| functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) |
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Definition
| an imaging technique used to examine changes in the activity of the working human brain |
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| transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) |
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| the use of strong magnets to briefly interrupt normal brain activity as a way to study brain regions |
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| institutional review boards (IRBs) |
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Definition
| groups of people responsible for reviewing proposed research to ensure that it meets the accepted standards of science and provides for the physical and emotional well-being of research participants |
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| the extent to which the data collected addresses the research hypothesis in the way intended |
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| the extent to which a measure is stable and consistent over time in similar conditions |
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| the extent to which an experimental measure is free from error |
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| a measure that represents the typical behavior of the group as a whole |
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| in a set of numbers, how widely dispersed the values are from each other from the mean |
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| a statistical measure of how far away each value is, from the mean |
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| a set of procedures used to make judgements about whether differences actually exist between sets of numbers |
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| a research method in which researchers quantify perceptual or cognitive processes in response to a specific stimulus |
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| 1773 - Williamsburg, Virginia - more of a prison than anything else - emphasis on psychopathology - thought people chose to be "crazy" and needed to be cured |
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o In 200 years – amazing advances
o mid 1960’s = revolution -> we began to understand how the brain and the chemicals (neurotransmitters) operate |
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| child development - language |
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Definition
| a child 2 or 3 years old can both acquire a language and learn multiple languages without being formally taught and will never confuse multiple languages - much harder to acquire language later in life |
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| contents of subjective experience – what you are feeling/thinking/etc. only way of knowing is by asking |
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| actions and expressions of thoughts and feelings – you can watch people and notice things/draw conclusions from behavior that shed light on what is going on in a person’s mind |
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| founded john watson 1913 and popularized later by BF skinner focused on in 19th century not many today as they focus solely on behavior not subjective experience since it cannot be observed/tested |
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| structuralism - first school of psychology |
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Definition
1879 leipzig germany - in order to analyze brain and behavior you must break components/behaviors down into smallest units of behavior
ex. how long does it take to make a decision - break down component - access to subjective experience |
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founded by william james
major influence: charles darwin and theory on evolution |
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| behaviorist law: behaviors that are followed by positive consequences tend to be repeated and those followed by negative consequences tend not to be repeated |
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| Differences between behavioral and cognitive approaches - Renee Descartes proposes dual nature of humans: spiritual/non physical force drives physical force that directly alters behavior |
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| Big debates II: empiricists v. nativists (nurture v. nature) |
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Definition
• Empiricists favor nurture approach – everyone born with clean slate
• Nativists favor nature approach – everyone born with certain abilities/propensities
• In first two years of life a child will learn a language with no instruction just exposure – nurture aspect to this – not likely to learn a language if not exposed to it in this critical sensitive period of the first two years of life
- Definitive experiment based on nurture was done by looking at 5 year old Caucasians and African Americans -> almost no difference. If same groups are again tested ten years later they differ about 15 pts - The biggest single indicator of your IQ is your parents’ IQ – majority is based on nature AND nurture MAJOR THEME - nature and nurture work together to affect human psychology |
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| multiple personality disorder |
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Definition
• The brain is always conducting electrical activity – spontaneous electrical activity
• Biological differences in the brain – different personalities – real bodily changes that occur when the different personalities are out – EEG
• If you are a physiological psychologist you would try to make the brain activity appear as that of a “normal” human being
• Behavioral psychologist would try to predict and control behavior to make Tony not change personalities – positive/negative reinforcement depending on whether or not Tony changes personalities
• Cognitive approach would be to figure out why this is happening and how to alter it |
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Definition
data gathering is critical - main methods:
o Descriptive v. experimental – your ability to use appropriate method depending on the question that you are asking is critical
o Mimic nature as much as possible
o Experimental method is all about control – cause and effect relationship (typically can’t do this with descriptive method)
o In a naturalistic situation where you don’t want to intervene you would use a descriptive, not experimental, approach |
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| used often in Neuropsychology. Almost always very small samples – particular types of disorders – learned a lot about brain function through these – relatively rare in other areas |
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| most common type of procedure in terms of descriptive techniques |
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| examines relationship between 2+ variables ex. smoking and lung cancer ==> Correlation between two variables DOES NOT mean that one variable CAUSED a change in the other |
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| Correlation coefficient (r) |
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Definition
==>Range -1 to +1 -> the closer they are to either end, the stronger the relationship is
==> Direction -> positive correlations indicate that the two variables move together (as you increase smoking you increase your probability of getting lung cancer) negative correlations indicate the reverse (the more you exercise the lesser probability of heart disease)
==> Only works for linear relationship
==> 0 correlation means no relationship between variables
==> No such thing as a perfect correlation (exactly -1 or +1) |
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ONLY way to make cause and effect relationships
2+ groups as similar as possible manipulation only performed on one |
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ONLY way to make cause and effect relationships
2+ groups as similar as possible manipulation only performed on one |
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Definition
• Psychology Is a science because relies on scientific method
• Importance of data collection (way advantages and disadvantages of diff methods)
• Descriptive methods of collecting data
o Naturalistic observations, case studies, interviews, surveys and correlations
• Experiment as method for gathering data – make cause and effect relationships
o Randomization needed for experiments and experiments are only way to create cause and effect relationships |
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| Ethics in research - general guidelines |
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Definition
Do no harm”
o Principle of informed consent
o Participation is voluntary – cannot force or coerce someone to participate
o Free to withdraw at anytime during experiment
o Compensation is NOT contingent on completion – only contingent on showing up and reading informed consent form
o Importance of debriefing |
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| Ethics in research - animals |
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Definition
• Need to protect physical comfort/health of animals
• If you are going to cause an animal any sort of discomfort you have to give them anesthesia
• For every hour that an animal is in a restraint chair they need three hours of play time
• You need to think about psychological health of animals |
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Term
| overview of neural communication |
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Definition
• Designed for one thing and one thing only: communication – neuron use chemo-electric communication
o Ex. from the outside world to your brain for processing
o Both electrical and chemical information transmission – from one neuron to the other – main goal: get information from one neuron to the next
• Stimulation of neuron causes chemical change in neuron
• Chemical change causes electric charge (action potential) to move down axon
• Eventually, electrical charge causes release of chemicals (neurotransmitters) that start process over again in connected neuron |
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Definition
| a long narrow outgrowth of a neuron by which information is transmitted to other neurons |
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| broken - string of sausages - a fatty material, made up of glial cells, that insulates the axon and allows for rapid movement of electrical impulses along the axon |
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| branchlike extensions of the neuron that detect information from other neurons |
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Definition
| bulb like protrusions where neuro transmitters are stored - small nodules at the ends of axons that release chemical signals from the neuron to the synapse |
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Definition
| pre synaptic neuron communicates across space with post synaptic neuron - the site for chemical communication between neurons |
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Definition
the neural impulse that passes along the axon and subsequently causes the release of chemicals from the terminal buttons
• Neuron stimulated
• Channels (gates) in membrane open - permeable membrane – allowing flow of ions
o Positive ions (sodium) rush in
o Large positive increase in that portion of the axon
*******• Action potential is all or none – no such thing as a partially fired neuron (either at resting potential or firing no in between states) binary system -> either on or off******** |
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| Propagation of action potential |
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Definition
• The electric charge goes down axon in exactly same way as it started – as one portion of axon is stimulated, sodium channels open up, that change causes subsequent changes in axon, change in electrical potential
• For some neurons action potential starts at axon hillock
• Spreads down axon toward terminal buttons
• Some neurons have a myelin sheath around axon |
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Term
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Definition
• Similar to insulation around copper wire
• Myelin sheath broken at points called nodes of Ranvier
• Allows very fast conduction down the axon
o Particularly important for things like reflexes where you want very fast reactions – good reflexes = intact neuro communication
o All born with gag reflex |
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| Summary of neural transmission |
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Definition
• Action potential starts at one place along an axon
o Positive ions (Na) rush in;
o K+ ions and Na leave
o Charge propagates along axon
• Action potential reaches terminal buttons
o Release of neurotransmitter by presynaptic neuron
o Binds to post synaptic neuron
o Causes action potential in post synaptic neuron |
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Definition
two parts:
1. brain
2. spinal chord |
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Definition
• Major goal of research on the brain is to find out which areas of brain important for different functions
• Critical distinction: not one part of brain responsible for one thing, etc. because brain works as a system not individual parts all separate
o Electrical stimulation-based on action potential as basis for communication
o Neurons function by chemical-electric stimulation – what happens if we electrically stimulate a neuron? They should fire and stimulate behavior
o System operates whether electrical current is internal or external |
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Definition
brainstem = basic life support functions (digestion, blood pressure, etc.)
Cerebellum = coordination of movement – 10% of brain |
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Definition
- tens of millions of neurons
- reticular activating system (responsible for regulating arousal and sleep-wake transitions)
limbic system - o Amygdala and Hypothalamus – role in aggression and aggressive behavior
o If you stimulate one part of amygdala, an aggressive animal can become calm and the opposite effect can happen when a different part of amygdala is stimulated – critical aspect of the brain in relation to emotions
- hippocampus = memory |
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Definition
most recently evolved
contains cerebral cortex (sensory lobes) |
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Definition
| 90-99% of information from one hemisphere to other goes through this |
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Definition
o Frontal – motor
o Temporal – hearing
o Occipital – vision
o Parietal – touch, walking, balance |
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Definition
• Two symmetrical hemispheres connected by corpus callosum
• Contralateral organization – allows us to look at what information can’t get through, through the corpus callosum
o Information received on left going to right hemisphere and vise versa |
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Term
| split brain patients - cut corpus callosum effects |
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Definition
| o Effects – right and left hemisphere “want” different things – usually recovers quickly from this afterward and can also adjust to it fairly easily (present information to one hemisphere not other such as music) |
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| sensory psychology overview |
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Definition
o Transduction – a change in the form of energy (conversion) – energy from the outside world (light, sound, changes in air pressure, etc.) efficiently and quickly – convert energy from outside world -> unified single type of energy: action potential¬
==> Receptors in each system
o Adequate stimulus – in ever sensory system – that form of energy that will most readily bring about a response in any sensory system (ex. adequate stimulus for visual system is light) – not only way but most efficient way to stimulate a sensory system
o Law of specific nerve energies – which nerve is generated? – Way to tell what experience (auditory, visual, etc.) you are going to have
==> Battery experiment
o Physical properties give rise to perceptual features
==> Colors |
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| wave characteristics of light |
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Definition
• Differences in wavelength are perceived as differences in color
• Differences in amplitude are perceived as differences in brightness |
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Definition
o Cornea
==> Light enters eye
o Pupil
==> Changes size depending on levels of brightness (amplitude) – contraction/dilation – the eyes protective mechanism – provides overstimulation of eye
o Iris
==> Colored part of eye
o Lens
==> Changes shape depending on where your focus is – focuses light on retina (far versus close, etc.) – loses ability to do this with age
o Optic disc
==> Very few structures – no way of transducing at this point – how to find your blind spot
o Retina
==> Where the visual receptors are located – specialized neurons called photoreceptors – two types: rods and cones |
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Term
| how photochemicals in rods and cones respond to light |
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Definition
| o Produce changes in neurons that allow ions to come in and sodium/potassium channels open up – *action potential* |
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Term
| properties of rods and cones |
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Definition
• Cones (about 7 million in each retina)
o Respond best to high amplitude light (appears to us as bright light)
o Also respond to changes in wavelength (color)
o Difficult to see color in dark – cones not operating at these amplitude levels
• Rods (about 120 million in each retina)
o Respond best to dim illumination (or low amplitude light energy)
o Do not respond to color
• Dark adaptation
o Eyes adjust to light |
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Term
| trichromatic theory of color vision |
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Definition
| the condition of possessing three independent channels for conveying color information, derived from the three different cone type |
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| the opponent process theory |
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Definition
• Photochemicals in cones arranged in opposed pairs
o Red-Green
o Blue-Yellow
o Black-White |
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Term
| explanation for after images |
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Definition
| you inhibit the cones responsive to medium wavelengths of light but then when you see a blank slate with no wavelength information present – those cones that are responsible for green now fire more than they normally do instead of seeing the blankness you see and perceive green – rebound effect |
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Term
| factors affecting color blindness |
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Definition
• Gender: males 8-10 times more likely to be colorblind than females
• Race: Caucasians 2 to 3 more times likely to be colorblind than any other race
• Age: loss of cones containing all three types of photochemicals |
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Definition
• Higher frequency -> higher pitch
• Amplitude – decibels -> loudness |
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Definition
• Pinna
• External auditory canal – tube that connects outer ear to middle ear – where earwax is generated |
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Definition
• Ear drum (tympanic membrane) – compression = hit drum, expansion = drum sticks up (vibration/relaxation)
• Ossicles – hammer, anvil and stirrup |
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Definition
• The cochlea – filled with fluid not air
o Basilar membrane
o Hair cells on the basilar membrane
o Bending of hair cells causes neurons to fire action potential – transduced changed in air pressure through changed in pressure in 3 ossicles – action potentials through bending of hair cells |
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Definition
- Receptors in nasal passages respond to specific chemicals
- Humans relatively poor at identifying smells
- Large gender differences:
o Same structure of smell
o Males are better at identifying musk (perfume) and brut after aftershave
o Females are better at identifying juicy fruit gum, coconut, and prune juice |
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Definition
Sensation: transduction process
Perception: Brain interpreting that information |
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Definition
| inability to recognize familiar faces |
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Definition
Should not see in depth because nothing we have in our eye, or retina, is in 3D
We don’t SEE in depth, we just create it through BINOCULAR DISPARITY CUES:
o Right and left eyes see the world differently so the connection between the two help each other create depth |
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Definition
| cues of depth perception that are available to each eye alone |
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Definition
Perceptual organization
o Idea of perception: what you see is NOT necessarily what you get”
o Based on sensation
Perceptual grouping (like when you complete a picture of a circle even if it’s not all there)
Ambiguous figures: no cues to figure it out
Importance of context
o Context—surrounding elements, angle of viewing, motion
o Bottom-up theories predict same stimulus, same pattern |
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Definition
| people correctly perceive objects as constant in their shape, size, color and lightness despite raw sensory data that could mislead perception |
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Definition
| a cue of depth perception that is caused by the distance between a person's eyes which provides each eye with a slightly different image |
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Definition
| a hierarchal model of pattern recognition in which data are related from one processing level to the next always moving to a higher level of processing |
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Definition
| a hierarchal model of pattern recognition in which information at higher levels of processing can also influence lower, "earlier" levels in the processing hierarchy |
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Definition
| perception of our limbs in space |
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Definition
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Definition
| a way to produce a given spectrum pattern in which different wavelengths of lights are mixed. the percept is determined by the interaction of these wavelengths with receptors in the eye and is a psychological process |
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Definition
| a way to produce a given spectral pattern in which the mixture occurs within the stimulus itself and is actually a physical, not psychological process |
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Definition
| a visual process in which adjacent photoreceptors tend to inhibit one another |
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Definition
| a visual process in which adjacent photoreceptors tend to inhibit one another |
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Definition
| the region of visual space to which neurons in the primary visual cortex are sensitive |
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Definition
| the center of the retina, where cones are densely packed |
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Definition
| the pattern of the changes in air pressure through time that results in the percept of sound |
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Term
| eardrum (tympanic membrane) |
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Definition
| a thin membrane, wich sound waves vibrate, that marks the beginning of the middle ear |
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Definition
| the sense of sound perception |
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Definition
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Definition
| the sense of smell, which occurs when receptors in the rose respond to chemicals |
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Definition
| the thin layer of tissue, within the nasal cavity, that is embedded with smell receptors |
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Definition
| the brain center for smell, located below the frontal lobes |
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Definition
| individuals that are highly aware of flavors and textures - greater number of taste buds |
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Definition
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Definition
| sensory receptors that transduce taste information |
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Definition
| a theory of perception based on the idea that the detection of a faint stimulus requires a judgement - its not an all-or-none process |
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Definition
| a process by which sensory receptors produce neural impulses when they receive physical or chemical stimulation |
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Definition
| the sense organs' response to external stimuli and the transmission of these responses to the brain |
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Definition
| the processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory signals; it results in an internal representation of the stimulus |
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Definition
| the intense sensation that an amputated body part still exists |
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Definition
| a property of the brain that allow it to change as a result of drugs, experience or injury |
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Definition
| located at base of the hypothalamus; the gland that sends hormonal signals controlling the release of hormones from endocrine glands |
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Definition
| a communication system that uses hormones to influence thoughts, behaviors and actions |
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Definition
| chemical substances, typically released from endocrine glands, that travel through the bloodstream to targeted tissues, which are subsequently influenced by the hormones |
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Term
| sympathetic division of ANS |
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Definition
| a division of the autonomic nervous system; it prepares the body for action |
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Term
| parasympathetic division of ANS |
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Definition
| a division of the autonomic nervous system; it returns the body to its resting state |
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Definition
| a major component of the peripheral nervous system; it transmits sensory signals to the CNS via nerves |
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Definition
| a major component of the peripheral nervous system; it regulates the body's internal environment by stimulating glands and by maintaining internal organs such as the heart, gall bladder and stomach |
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Definition
| the lower region of the cerebral cortex, important for processing auditory information and for memory |
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Definition
| the region at the front of the cerebral cortex concerned with planning and movement |
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Definition
| a region in the frontal lobes, especially prominent in humans, important for attention, working memory, decision making, apropro social behavior and personality |
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Definition
| regions of the cerebral cortex, at the back of the brain, important for vision |
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Definition
| regions of the cerebral cortex, in front of the occipital loves and behind the frontal lobes, important for the sense of touch and of the spatial layout of an invironment |
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Definition
| a brain structure that serves a vital role in our learning to associate things with emotional responses and in processing emotional information |
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Definition
| a system of subcortical structures that are important for the initiation of planned movement |
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Term
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Definition
| the outer layer of brain tissue, which forms the convoluted surface of the brain |
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Definition
| a small brain structure that is vital for temperature regulation, emotion, sexual behavior and motivation |
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| the gateway to the brain; it receives almost all incoming sensory information before that information reaches the cortex |
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| a brain structure important for the formation of certain types of memory |
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| a large, convoluted protuberance at the back of the brainstem, essential for coordinated movement and balance |
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| a section of the bottom of the brain, housing the most basic programs of survival, such as breathing, swallowing, vomiting, urination and orgasm |
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| the left frontal region of the brain, crucial for the production of language |
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Definition
| the primary excitatory transmitter in the nervous system |
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Definition
| a neurotransmitter involved in natural pain reduction and reward |
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Definition
| a neurotransmitter involved in pain perception |
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Definition
| a monoamine neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and motor control |
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| a neurological disorder that seems to be caused by dopamine depletion, marked by muscular rigidity, tremors, and difficulty initiating voluntary action |
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Definition
| the primary inhibitory transmitter in the nervous system |
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Definition
| the neurotransmitter responsible for adrenaline rushes, bursts of energy causes by its release throughout the bosy |
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Definition
| the neurotransmitter involved in states of arousal and awareness |
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Definition
| the neurotransmitter involved in states of arousal and awareness |
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Definition
| a monoamine neurotransmitter important for a wide range of psychological activity, including emotional states, impulse control and dreaming |
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Definition
| the neurotransmitter responsible for motor control at the junction between nerves and muscles; also involved in mental processes such as learning, memory, sleeping and dreaming |
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| any drug that enhances the actions of a specific neurotransmitter |
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Definition
| any drug that inhibits the actions of a specific neurotransmitter |
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Definition
| the process whereby a neurotransmitter is taken back into the presynaptic terminal buttons, thereby stopping is activity |
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Definition
| a chemical substance that carries signals from one neuron to another |
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Definition
| in neurons, specialized protein molecules, on the postsynaptic membrane, that neurotransmitters bind to after passing across the synaptic cleft |
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Term
| resting membrane potential |
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Definition
| the electrical charge of a neuron when its not active |
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Definition
| small gaps of exposed axon, between the segments of myelin sheath, where action potentials are transmitted |
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Definition
| one of the three types of neurons, these neurons communicate only with other neurons, typically within a specific brain region |
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Definition
| these efferent neurons direct muscles to contract or relax, thereby producing movement |
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Definition
| there afferent neurons detect information from the physical world and pass that information along to the brain |
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Definition
| the basic unit of the nervous system; it operates through electrical impulses which communicate with other neurons through chemical signals. Neurons receive, integrate, and transmit information in the nervous system |
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| a statistical estimate of the variation, caused by differences in heredity, in a trait within a population |
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| a gene that is expressed in the offspring whenever it is present |
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| a gene that is expressed only when it is matched with a similar gene from the other parent |
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Definition
| the genetic constitution determined at the moment of conception |
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Definition
| structures within the cell body that are made up of genes |
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Definition
| the unit of heredity that determines a particular characteristic in an organism |
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