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Psych 80
Final exam
113
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
06/03/2011

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

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Term
personality
Definition
attributes that describe a person: unique & consisten
Term
situationist argument
Definition
Walter Mischel - the situation drives behavior, personality traits do not predict behavior across situations. Correlation between traits and behavior is "only" 0.3 - 0.4
Term
emotion
Definition

phenomena that include feeling, such as emotional states, moods, and emotional traits

Term
correspondence bias
Definition
tendency to attribute behavior to personality even when it is due to the situation
Term
4 types of personality data
Definition
Informant, Behavior, Self-report, life outcome
Term
3 criteria for "good" measures of personality
Definition
valid, reliable, generalizable
Term
validity
Definition
the degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure. depends on reliability. convergent - relates to things it should relate to. discriminant - doesnt relate to things it shouldnt relate to. predictive - extent to which results indicate results on another measure.
Term
reliability
Definition
degree to which a measurement is consistent
Term
Barnum effect
Definition
people accept descriptions that are applicable to them because they are universal descriptions that are applicable to a large population (zodiac)
Term
Fundamental Lexical Hypothesis - Gordon Allport
Definition
identified 18,000 words that describe people and divided them into 16 categories. Used factor analysis. 
Term
factor analysis
Definition
summarizes interrelations among sets of variables. identifies groups/clusters/factors of related items.
Term
the big five
Definition
neuroticism, agreeableness, openness, conscientousness, extraversion
Term
two-dimensional map of affective states
Definition
high arousal & low arousal - positive and negative ends to each spectrum
Term
Carnahan & McFarland (2007)
Definition
looked at the effect of self-selection in studies such as the Stanford Prison Experiment - volunteers are already predisposed based on the description of the experiment. Replicated study with male college students 
Term
NEO Personality Inventory
Definition
measures the Big Five 
Term
Miyamoto & Kitayama (2002) - correspondence bias
Definition

Study on Japanese and American participants - Americans showed much more of a correspondence bias 

read paragraph about professor, told about situational constraint

Term
Big Three 
Definition
positive emotionality (agreeableness, extraversion), negative emotionality (neuroticism), constraint (conscientiousness, openness)
Term
Fleeson (2001) - daily & global traits
Definition
46 students, asked to describe themselves for 13 days with different traits, completed the NEO at the end.  measured daily and global reports of personality traits. RESULTS: people show ALL levels of trait-related behavior over two weeks. GLOBAL TRAITS CORRELATE WITH DAILY TRAITS
Term
Do self-reports of personality correlate with peer reviews?
Definition
Yes
Term
Hofstee et al (1997) - big five in english, dutch & german
Definition
chose 126 words easily translatable in English, Dutch & German. Found that N, C, A, and E emerge in all three languages and O is similar in German and English but different in Dutch  
Term
etic v. emic approach to studying the big five
Definition
etic = use Western words. emic = use indigenous equivalents.
Term
McCrae et al (2005) Studying Big Five Across Cultures 
Definition
tranlated NEO in Filipino, but changed some items and administered to college students. Found that all five emerged. (etic approach)
Term
Fanny Cheung et al (2007) - CPAI
Definition
Created Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory, administered that and the NEO to college students and found all of the big five in both EXCEPT openness was not found in CPAI and "interpersonal relatedness" was not found in NEO. interpersonal relatedness = trying to avoid offending others, accepting others requests, etc.  
Term
Funder & Colvin (1998) - rating friends traits 
Definition
targets & judges (friends of subejcts).  judges rate friends based on experience and rate strangers based on video of them talking. used california Q-sort.  strangers were not good at making predictions, but they were as good as friends during SECOND conversation.
Term
Main limitation of the Big Five?
Definition
does not capture values and goals
Term
Schwartz Values Survey 
Definition
Reliable. Includes openness to change, self-enhancement, conservation, and self-transcendence.  
Term
cognitive subconscious 
Definition
emphasizes goals, does not serve defensive functions, is logical & rational, can easily become conscious
Term
Bargh, Chen & Burrows (1996) - subconscious priming
Definition
Study on subconscious.  Found that being primed with rude comments made participants ruder, being primed with elderly images made participants walk slower, being primed with black stereotype made participants more hostile. 
Term
Van Baaren, et al (2003) - subconscious pen mimicry
Definition
23 college students asked to unscramble sentences primed with either interdependent or independent words. Results: being concerned with interdependence increases mimicry of experiment playing with a pen.
Term
Freudian unconscious 
Definition
emphasizes emotions, motives, and wishes. serves defensive functions. illogical, irrational. becomes consicous under very specific conditions.
Term
Bonnano et al (2007) - Repressive Coping
Definition
Does repressive coping help promote resilience?  Interviewed people dealing with stress, monitored skin to rate negative affect during interview. Used Affective-Autonomic Response Discrepany (self reports minus skin conductance levels). RESULTS; more repressive coping = better mental and physical health
Term
Olson, Fazio & Hermann (2007) - implicit and explicit measures of self esteem
Definition
Participants completed self-esteem and trait self-report and implicit measures.  Half were told to complete them again given information that people often inflate their own perception of themselves. RESULTS: implicit and explicit measures of self-esteem are more related when participants are asked to be honest.
Term
Ambady & Rule 2008 - rate CEO photos
Definition

 

Had college students rate photos of CEOs on warmth, power, and leadership.  Power & leadership ratings correlated with company profits

 

Term
Realistic accuracy model (Funder)
Definition
relevance, availability, detection, utilization
Term
Ambady & Rosenthal 2003 - rate teachers videos
Definition
had female college students rate videos of teachers on a variety of personality traits. results correlated with teacher evaluations
Term
homotypic continuity 
Definition
responses to the same instrument over time 
Term
heterotypic continuity
Definition
responses to different instruments at different times
Term
Harker & Keltner (2001) The Power of a Smile
Definition

looked at intensity of smiles in college yearbook photos and used self reports of personality at four different ages 20-40 along with staff/observer (I) data, and marriage/well-being (L data) RESULTS: smiles correlated with all 3 (self, informant, life data

SMILES CORRELATED WITH MARITAL STATUS AND WELL BEING

Term
Gosling et al 2002 - A Room with a Cue
Definition
self reports (NEO) and target ratings based on the participant's rooms correlated strongly with big 5 ESPECIALLY openness
Term
Morizot et al (2003) - Continuity and Change in Personality
Definition

tested "representative" and "adjudicated" boys - completed Jesness Personality Inventory and Eyseneck Personality Questionnaire. Specifically looked at disinhibition, negative emotionality, extraversion/positive emotionality.  Although both samples showed this maturation, the adjudicated men displayed a lower rate of change during adolescence and early adulthood. The two samples did not differ in Extraversion and this trait remained more stable, particularly for adjudicated men.

 

Term
The Dunedin Study (Caspi 2000) 
Definition

large representative sample of people in New Zealand.  assessed several times between ages 3 and 18. divided children into 5 groups at age three based on used self-report, informant, and life data. 3 main temperaments at age three were undercontrolled, inhibited, and well-adjusted and they predicted personality, interpersonal relationships, and criminal offenses at age 18. 

 

Term
Kagan et al - uninhibited/inhibited (1987)
Definition
identified as babies as inhibited or uninhibited - inhibited correlated with inhibited at age 5 and correlated with higher cortisol levels. there are physiological differences between inhibited and uninhibited children that may or not be genetic 
Term
heritability
Definition
the proportion of observed phenotype that can be attributed to genetic variance  
Term
Matheny 1983 - twin heritability
Definition

Across 5 studies of 24,000 twin pairs

Nearly all personality traits assessed by self- report show moderate genetic influence (I.e., MZ > DZ).

Extraversion (MZ: .51, DZ: .18) = 60%

Neuroticism (MZ: .46, DZ: .20) = 50%

Agreeableness, Conscientiousness , Openness = 40%

Moderate genetic influence found with peer reports, too, although the magnitude is less than with self reports.

 

Term
personality is __% heritable
Definition
40
Term

shared environment influences personality ___ than shared heredity

 

Definition
less
Term
Johnson(2004) - traits & divorce
Definition
MZ & DZ twins. Assigned Minnesota Personality Questionnaire and looked at divorce rates.  negative emotionality positively correlated, constraint negatively correlated. proportion of relationship between traits and divorce due to genetic factors - 79% for women, 94% for men
Term
evidence for stability of personality is based on ______ continuity 
Definition
differential 
Term
Knutson 2000 - monetary gain
Definition
Monetary incentive gain task - used FMRI - NAcc is activated by anticipation of gain - predicts positive arousal. EXTRAVERSION is associated with striatal activation during anticipation of positive gain.  NEUROTICISM is associated with striatal activation during non-loss outcome (v. loss outcome).
Term
neuroticism is associated with ____ of the brain over the lifespan
Definition
shrinkage
Term
how do we measure age-related change in personality?
Definition
absolute vs. relative rank
Term
Roberts et al - trait change
Definition

aggregated effect sizes across age intervals for big 5. 

openness - small decline at 55

agreeableness - increase

conscientiousness - increase

neuroticism

social vitality - decline at 55 

emotional stability - increase until 60

Term
Costa & McCrae - cultural trait changes
Definition

translated version of the NEO in 5 languages 

conscientiousness - increase

 agreeableness - increase

openness - decrease 

extraversion - decrease 

neuroticism - decrease 

Term
Carstensen et al 2000 - emotional functioning across lifespan
Definition

sampled African Americans and European Americans 

ages 18 - 94

paged throughout the day to ask how they feel 

negative affect DECREASES across lifespan (slight increase towards end of life)

emotional complexity INCREASES across lifespan

Term
Gross et al 1997 - nun study 
Definition

1,000 nuns ages 24 to 101

tested frequency of emotional experience and ability to control emotions

positive affect INCREASES and negative affect DECREASES with age


Term
dynamic integration theory
Definition

affect optimization & affect complexity

compensation for decline in cognitive-affective complexity in older adulthood 

negative affect --> higher cognitive demand

positive affect --> low cognitive demand

Term
life span theory of control
Definition

loss of primary control in old age due to biological and sociocultural constraints

utilization of secondary control: more loss->down regulate negative affect, less novelty->enhance positive affect

Term
socioemotional selectivity theory
Definition

we shift from information seeking goals to emotion seeking goals

older adults regulate emotional experience to enhance positive and reduce negative 

Term
the positivity affect
Definition
to enhance emotional experience, older adults tend to positive stimuli more than negative stimuli compared to young adults
Term
cheerful & optimistic = LONGER/SHORTER life
Definition
shorter
Term
intraindividual variability
Definition

limits of aging studies 

how much do changes across lifespan differ depending on person?

Term
Hart et al (2008) - neighborhood
Definition

longitudinal study of women

personality measured by maternal and observer ratings

 neighborhood disadvantage negatively correlated with personality stability and overcontrol, positively correlated with behavior problems 

Term
Cutrona 2005 - neighborhood depression
Definition

african american women in rural and urban areas

looked at neighborhood, negative life events, tested big 3 personality traits

neighborhood disadvantage and negative life events WERE NOT correlated with depression 

Term
Oishi 2010- moving
Definition

college students - self report personality and moving history and centrality of group of friends to self

·      The more you move, the more important personal traits are as opposed to collective traits

·      If you move more, you have to carry something constant across those settings but if you don’t move as much group memberships are much more a part of who you are

 


Term
how does moving affect well-being and mortality?
Definition

nationally representative sample of adults

moving affects how well you're doing, but the effect of moving on your well-being is moderated by your personality

more moves correlate w/ less satisfying social relationships

frequent moving correlates with higher mortality rate

Term
two possible causes of regional differences in personality?
Definition

selective migration 

culture

Term
3 reasons why birth order might alter personality
Definition

differential parenting styles 

competition between siblings 

prenatal/gestational factors

Term
Herrera et al 2003 - birth order
Definition

looked at first/middle/last borns & only children 

rated on different traits and most likely occupations

first borns: stable, intelligent, obedient, responsible, not very emotional

only children: not agreeable

last borns: NOT obedient or responsible

first borns most likely to occupy HIGH PRESTIGE JOBS


Term
Paulhus et al 1999 - birth order
Definition

US & Canada

participants indicate which sibling is most likely to be rebel/achiever

last borns are more likely rebels 

first borns are more likely achievers

Term
relationship between birth order & IQ?
Definition
first borns generally have highest IQ
Term
Confluence model (Zajonc)
Definition

mathematical model of the effect of birth order and family on IQ 

theory is that first born children are born into intellectual (adult only) environments

emphasis is on how the environment affect intelligence

Term
Attachment theory
Definition

attachment propensity during infancy sets the frame for attachments in later relationships

infant attachment reflects internal working models

Term
Bokhorst et al 2009 - infant attachment
Definition

importance of shared environment in infant-mother attachment

MZ & DZ twins

observed during strange situation, mothers rate temperament

temperamental reactivity largely due to heritability

secure-insecure classification largely due to shared environment

Term
Suomi 1987 - rhesus monkeys
Definition

reactive and normal rhesus monkeys

raised by either normal or highly nurturing moms

after six months rated exploration of enviro, response to stress, position in peer hierarchy

high reactive monkeys affected more than normal monkeys

high reactive monkeys with nurting moms did FAR BETTER adjustment-wise

Term
5 shared environmental factors
Definition

SES 

parenting 

neighborhood

parenting rituals

marital quality

Term
6 nonshared environmental factors
Definition

peers 

sibling 

differential parenting

teachers/coaches

injury & illness

birth order

Term
Hofstede 1980 - culture
Definition

classified five nations among different dimensions including individualism-collectivism 

US, Australia, Great Britain, Canada had highest individualism 

Venezuela, Taiwan &  China lowest individualism

Term
main difference in cross-cultural personality consistency?
Definition
Americans are more consistent becuase their behavior is less dependent on others
Term
Affect Valuation Theory
Definition

"ideal" affect

"actual" affect

cultural factors strongly determine ideal affect

temperment strongly determines actual affect

ideal affect determines mood, facial & vocal behavior 

actual affect determines physiological activation

ideal affect influences how we present ourself and how we perceive others

culture shapes more how we want to feel than how we actually feel

Term
Roberts et al 2003 - happiness & work
Definition

negative emotionality at age 18 is negatively correlated with occupational attainment, work satisfaction, and financial security at age 21 and vice versa 


Term
5 barriers to changing personality
Definition

hedonic treadmill 

other's stability 

environmental influence 

impulses & motivations

genetics

Term
Lewis et al 2000 - divorce influence attachment
Definition

assessed attachment at age 1 and 18 

childrens of divorced parents more likely to be insecurely attached at age 18


Term
Roisman et al 2000 - insecure infants as adults?
Definition

longitudinal study of mothers & infants 

attachment at ages 1 & 19 

romantic relationship at age 21

ATTACHMENT CAN CHANGE FROM INSECURE TO SECURE - earned security

Term
Lyubomirsky et al 2000 - acts of kindness
Definition

college students

either performed acts spread out or concentrated

people who perform acts all on one day are happier

Term
Boehm et al 2011 - cultural strategies of increasing happiness
Definition

anglo americans and asian americans

control, optimism, gratitude 

optimism-anglo and gratitude-anglo worked 

optimism-asian DECREASED 

gratitude-asian worked but not drastically 


Term
Kooppman-Holm et al 2011 - meditation (2)
Definition

study 1

university students: meditators & non-meditators

asked to respond to letter from murderer 

meditators were MORE LIKELY to respond and they wrote much longer letters

meditators showed MORE empathy, encouragement, forgiveness and sympathy

study 2 

female university students assigned to compassion meditation, mindfulness meditation, theatre & control

NO DIFFERENCE IN WHO RESPONDED OR ANY FACTORS EXCEPT COMPASSION GROUP WAS MORE EMPATHETIC



Term
Knutson et al 1998 - anti-depressants
Definition

normal volunteers  - either given placebo or SSRI (selective serotonin uptake reinhibitor)

SSRI participants LESS HOSTILE LESS NEGATIVE AFFECT MORE AFFILIATIVE BEHAVIOR 


Term
Lyubomirsky et al 2005 - happy
Definition

found that being happy leads to positive outcomes in work, social relationships & health 

cross-sectional & longitudinal & experimental evidence

chronic happiness is governed by 3 factors: genetic happiness set point, happiness-relevant circumstances, happiness-relevant activities and practices

Term
3 ways we measure happiness 
Definition

presence of positive affect

absence of negative affect 

satisfaction with life

Term
Broaden & Build Theory
Definition

positive emotions widen mindsets allowing exploration (BROADEN) 

positive emotions provide opportunities to grow and learn (BUILD)

Term
Friesen et al 2001 - happiness & mortality
Definition

nuns wrote short autiobiographies between ages 18 and 24 

analyzed use of positive and negative emotion words

use of positive emotion words correlated with likelihood to be alive

Term
what is the average positivity ratio that makes a difference?
Definition

2.9:1 

almost 3x

Term
Lykken & Tellegen 1996 - heritability of happiness
Definition

twins raised together and apart

complete well-being scale

LONG TERM WELL-BEING IS 40-80% HERITABLE

Term
Brickman et al 1978 - lottery winners
Definition

interviewed lottery winners, accident victims & controls

self reports of happiness 

LOTTERY WINNERS SHOW ADAPTATION

hedonic treadmill

Term
Gilbert et al 1998 - affective forecasting
Definition

identified impact bias: tendency to overestimate enduring effect of future events 

examples: failures to lose weight, sports victories

affective forecasting: forecasting of one's emotional state in the future

Term
Iris Mouse - dark side of happiness
Definition

showed video of guy dancing 

asked how happy does this make you? 

group that was told about importance of happiness (valuing-happiness group) reported being less happy during video

Term
eudaemonic well-being
Definition

personal growth 

purpose in life 

positive relations with others

self-acceptance 

autonomy 

most happiness research only focuses on feeling good in the moment

Term
Kwan et al 1997 - cultural diff in well being
Definition

college students from US and Hong Kong

relationship satisfation did NOT correlate with life satisfaction for americans

DID correlate for Hong Kong 

self esteem was more predictive for americans than chinese

Term
limitations of happiness research
Definition

self reports 

focus on feelings 

measures AMERICAN standards

Term
Kahneman et al 1993 - more pain is better...
Definition

male subjects

submerged hand in tub of hot water for diff times and diff heats 

RESULTS people focus on end and neglect duration of pain

Term
2 ways personality influences health
Definition

risk exposure - behavior - viruses (infection), cancer (smoking) 

host resistance - biology - immune response, inflamation, pathogen activation

Term
social signal transduction - George Kelley
Definition

central nervous sytem perceptual processes 

perceptions affect gene expression

Term
the extraversion paradox
Definition
extraverted are less susceptible to illness because although their exposure is increased, but risk vulnerability is decreased
Term
DSM-IV
Definition

multiaxial assessment 

axis I - clinical disorders

axis II - personality disorders

Term
personality disorder characteristics
Definition

enduring pattern of behavior/experience that deviates from culture 

inflexible, rigid 

leads to distress

STABLE

Term
Oldham & Morris 1995 - adaptive traits & disorders
Definition

traits are correlated with disorders

idiosyncratic-->schizo 

dramatic-->histrionic

self-confident-->narcissistic

correlate with the big five

Term
Watson et al 1994 - personality and psychopathology
Definition

many types of psychopathology are stable and trait like

conceptually-distinct disorders are actually related to each other

EXAMPLE: NEUROTICISM 

specific disorders should not be studied in isolation

diathesis-stress models overlook personality as the diathesis

Term
diathesis stress model 
Definition

explains behavior as a combination of nature and nurture 

certain people are more likely to have certain disorders, but stress will exacerbate this likelihood

Term
Krueger et al 2007 - comorbidity & psychopathology
Definition

assessed for mental disorders using DSM axis I by interviewers 

8 clinical disorders

given Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (big 3)

RESULTS: clinical symptoms fall along two dimensions - internalization and externalization 


Term
Kendler et al 2006 - personality & clinical depression
Definition

7,000 twins in sweden 

assess neuroticism & extraversion and then depression 30 years later 

NEUROTICISM PREDICTS RISK FOR MAJOR DEPRESSIVE EPISODE (mostly due to genetic factors)

Term
individuals rank in a group (personality-wise) changes/remains the same over time
Definition
REMAINS THE SAME
Term
high v low self-monitors
Definition
high self monitors behave according to the situation, low self monitors are more likely to express personality
Term
interactionism (3 points)
Definition

resolution to situationist debate 

(1) the effect of a personality variable may depend on the situation and vice versa 

(2) people with different personalities may choose or fnd themselves in certain situations 

(3) situations are affected by the personalities of people who inhabit them

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