Term
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Definition
| a change in behavior or belief to accord with others; to make consistent with the group |
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Term
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Definition
| conformity that involves publicly acting accord with an implied or explicit request while privately disagreeing (response to one individual same or lower level than you) |
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Definition
| Acting in accord with a direct order a command (response to the command of one authority individual) |
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Term
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Definition
| conformity that involves both acting and believing in accord with social pressure |
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Term
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Definition
○ Group size: More is Stronger
§ a group of up to five people yields increasing conformity--returns diminish after surpassing five; matters how group is packaged (individual opinions of group more effective than seeming unanimous opinions)
○ Unanimity: more unanimous, more conformity
§ If just one other person dissents, more likely to disobey
○ Cohesion: minority opinion of one of 'us' persuades more than minority opinion of 'them'
§ Cohesivenss: a "we feeling"; the extent to which members of a group are bound together, such as by attraction for one another
§ Group members who feel attracted to the group are more responsive to its influence--fearing rejection, more likely to conform
○ Status: higher status people tend to have more impact
§ Junior group members are more conforming
○ Public Response
○ Prior Comittment
§ Once having made a public commitment, they stuck with it; at most, will change judgments in later situations |
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Term
| Group Size Effect on Conformity |
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Definition
| § a group of up to five people yields increasing conformity--returns diminish after surpassing five; matters how group is packaged (individual opinions of group more effective than seeming unanimous opinions) |
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Term
| Unanimity Effect on Conformity |
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Definition
| more unanimous, more conformity § If just one other person dissents, more likely to disobey |
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Term
| Cohesion Effect on Conformity |
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Definition
minority opinion of one of 'us' persuades more than minority opinion of 'them' § Cohesivenss: a "we feeling"; the extent to which members of a group are bound together, such as by attraction for one another
§ Group members who feel attracted to the group are more responsive to its influence--fearing rejection, more likely to conform |
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Term
| Status Effect on Conformity |
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Definition
| higher status people tend to have more impact § Junior group members are more conforming; lower status feel there is nothing to lose (thus, middle class conforms the most) |
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Term
| Public Response/Prior Comittment Effect on Conformity |
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Definition
More likely to conform if made public for responses
§ Once having made a public commitment, they stuck with it; at most, will change judgments in later situations |
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Term
| Milgram's Contributors to Obedience |
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Definition
○ The victim's distance
§ the further (physically and/or emotionally--i.e., depersonalization) from the actor, the more likely to obey disquieting orders; more compassionate to those nearby or highly personalized
○ Closeness and legitimacy of the authority
§ Physical presence of the examiner, and the reinforced authority of them; more likely to rebel against those without authority
○ Institutional Authority
§ Authorities backed by institutions wield social power
○ Liberating effects of group influence
§ Conformity can be constructive--more likely to defy obedience if feel in group |
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Term
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Definition
conformity based on a person's desire to fulfill other's expectations, often to gain acceptance; concern for social image § To be accepted and avoid rejection; desire to be liked (approval)
§ Groups often reject those who deviate consistently; social rejection = painful
§ Often sways without awareness |
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Definition
conformity occurring when people accept evidence about reality provided by other people; desire to be correct § To obtain information info.; desire to be right
§ Leads people to privately accept others influence; when reality is ambiguous, other people can be a valuable source of information; turning to another for information |
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Term
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Definition
a motive to protect or restore on's sense of freedom. Reactance arises when someone threatens our freedom of action. Value for sense of freedom and self-efficacy ○ Asserting Uniqueness
§ People feel better when they are moderately unique--try to assert individuality
□ Individuals with highest 'need for uniqueness' tend to e least response to majority influence
□ People try to project self concepts of unique--focus on differences; more conscious of differences than similarities
□ Rivalry more intense in group closely similar
§ We don't want to be greatly deviant but alike in wanting to feel distinctive |
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Term
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Definition
| : (1) original meaning: the tendency of people to perform tasks better when others are present (2) current meaning: the strengthening of dominant (prevalent, likely) |
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Term
| Arousal's Role in Social Facilitation |
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Definition
arousal stimulates dominant response, which is often correct for simple tasks and incorrect for complex
tasks--that social facilitation boosts performance on easy tasks and hurts
performance on difficult tasks |
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Term
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Definition
the tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable
○ social facilitation does not apply to many common situations, in which people pool
efforts into
○ a common goal and where individuals are not accountable for their efforts (like team
tug-of-war)
○People are less motivated when performing additive tasks
■Research controlled for issues of poor coordination and reinforced this
■Individuals are not aware of this--they perceive equal effort
■Free riders: people who benefit from the group but give little in return (e.g.,
pumping electricity in group lessened effort)
■Group situations decrease evaluation apprehension (lost in crowd)
■Thus, making individual performance identifiable can motivate
○Loafing is prominent in real-world situations, when the individual is not evaluated or
held accountable (i.e., individual output monitored) |
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Term
| How to Reduce Social Loafing |
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Definition
| People loaf less if you Identify everyone's part, you get commitment, there is cohesiveness, and evaluations are done including yourself, see efforts as significant |
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Term
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Definition
loss of self awareness and evaluation apprehension; occurs in group situations that foster responsiveness to group norms, good or bad
○When arousal and diffused responsibility combine, and normal inhibitions diminish,
results are startling--from mild lack of restraint to violent crimes
■Related to the power of the group--getting caught up with things |
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Term
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Definition
group-produced enhancement of members' preexisting tendencies; astrengthening of the members' average tendency, not a split within the group
●The Risky Shift
○Where groups will tend to decide on riskier action than of the previous individual
average--and individuals will also later advise the higher risk
○However, in some cases, will lean towards less risk options; rather, reflects tendency
to accentuate initial leanings
●Experiments
○e.g., intensifying like for one group and dislike for another
●Everyday Life
○In Schools: gaps between school groups intensify over time
○In Communities: different areas attract different types of people, and often these
people then mutually reinforce one another's opinions
○On the Internet: easily allows like-minded people to find one another and intensify
whatever previous leanings brought them there
○In Terrorist Organizations: take a while to develop, after converging of like-minded
people share grievances and slowly amplify |
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Term
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Definition
Groupthink is a type of thought within a deeply cohesive in-group whose members try to minimize conflict and reach consensus without critically testing, analyzing,
and evaluating ideas. Concurrence seeking overrides good judgment.
○Supported by (1) a cohesive group, (2) relative isolation from dissenting viewpoints,
and (3) a directive leader who signals what he/she favors |
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Term
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Definition
an illusion of invulnerability, rationalization, unquestioned belief in the group’s morality, stereotyped views of the opposition, pressure to conform, self-censorship of
misgivings, an illusion of unanimity, and “mindguards”-who protect the group from
unpleasant information. |
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Term
| How to Prevent Group Think |
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Definition
§ Be impartial--do not endorse any position
§ Encourage critical evaluation; assign a 'devils advocate' or welcome a geniune dissenter
§ Occasionally subdivide group and then reunite to air differences
§ Welcome critiques from outside experts and associates
§ Before implementing, call a 'last chance' meeting |
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Term
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Definition
| : a preconceived negative judgment of a group and its individual members □ Is an attitude--the ABCs |
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Term
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Definition
| a belief about the personal attributes of a group of people. Stereotypes are sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new information (a genearlization) □ Can be more or less true, not always negative, but problem is when stereotypes arise when they are overgeneralized or just plain wrong; supportive roles in prejudice (form information for the negative attitude) |
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Term
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Definition
| § Prejudice is a negative attitude, discrimination is a negative behavior; unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members |
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Term
| Why do we use Stereotypes? |
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Definition
we use stereotypes because they are heuristics (mental shortcuts for processinginformation efficiently) for understanding groups, the problems arise in that they are
overgeneralized; |
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Term
| Unequal Status and Discrimination |
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Definition
§ Unequal status breeds prejudice
§ Stereotypes help rationalize inferior status--think unequal groups as mentally slow, emotional and primitive, and contented with subordinate role
□ e.g., powerful men give female subordinates praise but limit resources
§ We see other groups as competent or as likable, but not both (respect or warmth) |
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Term
| Social Dominance Orientation |
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Definition
| : a motivation to have one's group dominate other social groups; being in that group motivates promoting this orientation □ More likely to embrace prejudice and to support political positions that justify prejudice; prefer professions that increase status/maintain heirarchies, and avoid professions that undermine hierarchies |
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Term
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Definition
§ Define ourselves by groups, self concept contains both personal identity and social identity: the 'we' aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to 'who am I?' that comes from our group memberships
□ Apply social identities in seemingly relevant situations
§ Theory: we categorize (useful to put people in categories), we identify (with our ingroups) and differ (from our outgroups) |
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Term
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Definition
| Us--a group of people who share a sense of belonging, a feeling of common identity |
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Term
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Definition
| : them--a group that people perceive as dinstinctly different from or apart from their group |
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Term
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Definition
| tendency to favor one's own group ® the group definition of who you are implies a definition of who you are not; We see situations relevant to our group as better |
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Term
| Why does Ingroup Bias factor into Prejudice? |
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Definition
□ Ingroup bias supports a positive self concept; basking in reflected glory
□ In-group bias feeds favoritism; even if groups have no logical basis, it provokes favoritism toward 'us' and unfairness toward 'them'
□ More prone to ingroup bias when our group is small and lower in status relative to the outgroup
□ In-group bias reflects both a liking for the in-group and a dislike for the out-group--more likely to see good qualities in our group and bad qualities in out (deny human attributes to outgroups)
□ To perceive ourselves as having status, we need people below us (status is relevant--benefit of prejudice
® Thinking about your own morality provokes enough insecurity to intensify ingroup favoritism and outgroup prejudice (terror management: people's self-protective emotional and cognitive responses (including adhering more strongly to prejudice) when confronted with reminders of their own morality)
® Those who doubt own strength more like to be prejudiced; positive ingroup coloring makes own feel better about self
® Despising outgroup strengthens igroup feelings-sense of belonging |
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Term
| Frustration: Scapegoat Theory |
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Definition
§ Pain and frustration (blocking of goal) can evoke hostility, & when the cause of our frustration is intimidating or unknown, we often redirect that hostility as prejudice
□ Economically prospering cultures more likely to endorse diversity
§ Realistic group conflict theory: the theory that prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources (when interests clash, similar groups) |
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Term
| Authoritarian Personality |
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Definition
a personality that is disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance of outgroups and those lower in status □ Hostility to all minorities, ethnocentric (believing in the superiority of one's own ethnic and cultur group, and having a corresponding disdain for all other groups), submissive respect to ingroup authorities
□ Because of repression of fears/hostilities, more likely to project hostilities and more punitive; dif. forms of prejudice coexist in individuals
□ Authoritariasm and social domination oritentation can coexist, but first is related to security and control and second is more related to one's group status |
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Term
| Cognitive Basis of Stereotypes |
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Definition
| We use stereotypes as cognitive heuristics--by utilizing categorization, distinctiveness, and attributions, we create a short (yet fundamentally flawed) map of the social world |
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Term
| Cognitive Stereotype Basis: Categorization |
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Definition
○ Categorization
□ Categorizing simplifies the world by clustering objects into groups--useful heuristic
§ Spontaneous Categorization
□ More likely to rely on strereotypes when: pressed for time, preoccupied, tired, emotionally aroused, and/or too young to appreciate diversity
□ Categorization is not prejudice, but it is necessary for prejudice
§ Perceived Similarities/Differences
□ Strong tendency to see objects within a group as being more uniform than they actually are |
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Term
| Outgroup Homogeneneity Effect |
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Definition
| a sense that they are 'all alike' and different from 'us' and 'our' group ® Group decisions lead outsiders to overestimate group unanimity |
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Term
| Cognitive Stereotype Basis: Distinctiveness |
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Definition
| distinctive people call attention, vivid cases are more easily brought to mind, and we perceive illusory correlations in distinctive events |
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Term
| Cognitive Stereotype Basis: Attribution |
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Definition
| □ Funamental attribution error: a person's race/sex is vivid and gets attention; the situational forces working upon the person are less so (e.g., slavery does not explain behavior, it was because of being black; attribute men's/women's actions to innate tendencies) |
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Term
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Definition
| explaining away outgroup members' positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their disposition (while excusing such behavior by one's own group) |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency of people to believe that the world is just and that people therefor get what they deserve and deserve what they get (explains blaming victims) |
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Term
| Cognitive Consequences of Prejudice |
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Definition
| Self Perpetuating Stereotypes, Self fulfilling prophecy, stereotype threat, stereotypes bias individuals/events interpretation |
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Term
| Self Perpetuating Stereotypes |
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Definition
§ Prejudgments guide our attention and our memories--associating something with category
§ Prejudgments are self perpetuating--more likely to explain away bad ingroup behavior but negatively affect how we construe the behavior of out group members (expects unpleasant encounter)
§ Subtyping: accomodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by thinking of them as 'exceptions to the rule' (exceptions to the group)
§ Subgrouping: accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by forming a new stereotype about this subset of a group (still part of the overall group) |
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Term
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Definition
a dirsruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. Unlike self-fulfilling prophecies that hammer one's reputation into one's self-concept, stereotype threat situations have immediate effects § Placed in a situation where others expect you to perform poorly, anxiety cause confirmation
□ Better to challenge to believe in potential (than to expect they'll need extra help)
§ Undermines by: stress, self-monitoring, and the cognitive resources needed to supress unwanted thoughts
§ Postive stereotypes can facilitate performance |
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Term
| Socialization theory of Prejudice |
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Definition
| based on how people socialize; authoritarianism, religiousnes, conformity & institutional supports factor in |
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Term
| Biological/Innate Theory of Aggression |
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Definition
| aggression is an innate, unlearned behavior pattern exhibited by all members of a species. |
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Term
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Definition
the blocking of goal-directed behavior
frustration grows when our motivation to achieve a goal is very strong, when we expect gratification, and when blockage is complete.
The more frustration the more aggression (see frustration-aggression below) |
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Term
| Drive Theory of Aggression |
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Definition
aggression is a response to frustration
frustration-aggression hypothesis: frustration always leads to aggression (Dollard and Miller)
frustration-aggression revised: frustration leads to readiness to aggress (Berkowitz) |
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Term
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Definition
Aggression is a learned social behavior
we learn to be aggressive by observing and imitating, and by being rewarded and punished |
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Term
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Definition
| incidents, arousal, media, sex, group |
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Term
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Definition
| dashed expectations, personal insults, or physical pain can incite an emotional outburst |
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Term
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Definition
| tudents who answered a questionnaire in an uncomfortably hot room reported feeling more tired and aggressive and expressed more hostility toward strangers |
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Term
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Definition
| when we are attacked we are very likely to respond aggressively. We have an “eye for an eye” mentality. |
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Term
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Definition
| Sexual arousal, anger, fright, and adrenaline all cause us to react more aggressively |
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Term
| Media Influences: Pornography, Sexual Violence, & Television, on Aggression |
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Definition
| More likely to be aggressive when viewing violence, pornography, or aggressiveness on TV |
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Term
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Definition
Biological Explanation: Alcohol causes chemicals in the brain to be released that increase aggression.
Restraint Explanation: Alcohol weakens inhibitions |
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Term
| Punishment and Aggression |
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Definition
| In order for punishment to work it needs to be PROMPTLY administered after the aggressive act, it must be STRONG so the aversive qualities are duly noted by the aggressor, and it must be CONSISTENTLY applied. |
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Term
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Definition
| Does not work. This is a myth. By releasing aggression, one only heightens aggression. |
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Term
| Social Skills Training/Social Modelling and Aggression |
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Definition
| e can model less aggressive behaviors and better ways to solve problems such as modelling reward sensitivity and cooperation from an early age. |
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Term
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Definition
| Unavailability of Aggressive Weapons: Aggressive stimuli trigger aggression. |
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Term
| Apologies as Aggression Controllers |
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Definition
| people who have an aggressor apologize to them are less likely to be aggressive. |
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Term
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Definition
| hysical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone |
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Term
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Definition
| a behavior that shows initiative, drive, or ambition. |
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