The smallest unit of speech sound.

How many are in the english language?

How many are there total (between all languages)?

The smallest unit of speech sound= Phenome

About 40 in english.

About 100 total.

The smallest unit of language that signals meaning.

Includes...

 Examples...

The smallest unit of language that signals meaning= Morpheme

Includes prefixes, suffixes, roots, can even be whole words

Examples include: -s, syn-, -ed, run, team

What are the "atoms" of meaning?

Combination of one or more morphemes:

 Language structure hierarchy:

"atoms" of meaning= morphemes

Words are a combination of one or more morphemes

 From lowest to highest level:

Phoneme

Morpheme

Words

Phrases

Sentences

Rules that determine word order:

The building blocks of sentences:

 Difference between meanings and referents

Rules that determine word order= Syntax

The building blocks of sentences= Phrases

 Meaning= idea or concept expresses

Referent= things in the world that are named by the word

Linguist who set the stage for the contempory study of language.

First step in understanding meaning.

Noam Chomsky set the stage for the contemporary study of language

First step in understanding meaning: create a "phrase structure description" - shows sentence structure is organized into a hierarchy of phrases.

Problem with relying solely on phrase structure to determine meaning.

Probelems with phrase structure: Ambiguities remain

1. One phrase can mean different things - the shootingof the hunters was terrible

2. Different phrases can mean the same thing - The boy hit the ball...the ball was hit by the boy

Difference between surface and deep structure (Chomsky)

What is transformational grammar?

Surface structure= The phrase structure of the current utterance

 Deep structure= a canonical phrase structure that has the same meaning as the surface structure (the underlying meaning)

Transformational grammar are rules that transform a deep phrase structure into a surface phrase structure with the same meaning

What is Lexical Ambiguity?

What is Syntactic Ambiguity?

 What is Lexicon?

Lexical ambiguity= word has two different meanings

ex. He was bothered by the cold

She noticed the port

Syntactic ambiguity= words can be grouped together into one or more phrase structures

ex. Pat wants to discuss sex with Jerry Springer

I saw the gorilla in my pajamas

Lexicon= mental dictionary

TRUE

but remember it also depends after what word a word is placed...

What order are sentences most easily comprehended?

Is active and passive voice descriminated against with non-reversible sentences?

Subject-verb-object - Active voice easier to comprehend than Passive voice.

For non-reversible sentences (such as "the icecream was eaten by the policeman"...cannot reverse to "the policeman was eaten by the icecream"), passive and active voice are not descriminated against...they are comprehended equally.

What is Broca's aphasia?

What is Wernicke's aphasia?

Neural pathway for repeating a heard word

Broca's Aphasia is difficulty with language production...slow halting speech, lack of use of function words, BUT comprehension is largely intact.

Wernicke's aphasia is fluent speech but doesn't make sense...difficulty with comprehension

 Neural pathway for repeating a heard word: Auditory cortex -> Wernicke's Area -> Broca's Area -> Motor cotex

First job in language acquisition:

Problem with assigning meanings (in language acquisition).

True/False: Grammar/pronunciation correction of children helps them develop language skills

First job in language acquisition: distinguish language sounds from other sounds.

Problem with assigning meanings in language acquisition: same sound can refer to different things, or different sounds can refer to the same thing.

FALSE...grammar/pronunciation correction of a children does NOT even help...despite little negative feedback, kids correct themselves.

True/False: in the first year, infants can discriminate all phonemes from all languages.

 Major stages of language learning.

TRUE: in the first year, infants can discriminate all phonemes from ALL languages...gradually they lose discriminations that are not important to their own language.

Major stages

1.Holophrastic (one-word) stage

2.Telegraphic (two-word) stage

3.Learning syntax/rules (syntactic overgeneralization)

Is there phrase understanding in the holophrastic stage of language acquisition?

Is there a correct use of word order in the telegraphic stage?

What does the graph for the learning rule of past tense look?

Yes, there is understanding of some phrases in the holophrastic stage of language acquisition.

 Yes, in the telegraphic stage, word order is correctly used.

The graph is u-shaped...initially, the past tense of irregular verbs are correctly used, but after learning the morpheme -ed, it is overgeneralized and child says goed instead of went..eventually child relearns the correct past tense.

Fitts and Posner's stages of skill.

 Describe each stage.

What does ACT stand for?

Procedural knowledge is made of...

Taking declarative knowledge and turning them into productions.

Taking several productions and joining them together into one.

ACT= Adaptive Control of Thought

Procedural knowledge is made of production rules: if-then statements.

Taking declarative knowledge and turning them into productions= Proceduralization.

Taking several productions and joining them together into one= Composition.

What is response chaining?

Does evidence support or deny response chaining?

Response chaining= feedback from one movement triggers the next one (motor)

...evidence does not support response chaining...actions are too fast (ex. typing..so fast that sometimes you hit a key before you're supposed to, showing that hitting that specific key was not triggered by another action before it)

What provides evidents for hierarchical representation of motor programming?

What is Fitts's Law?

Rosenbaum's experiment (takes less time to go from left middle to right middle than to go from left middle to left index).

Fitts's Law just says that more time is required to hit a small, distant object as opposed to a large, close object.

The two types of problems.

Stages of problem solving.

Actions that move between states of problem solving.

Whole range of possible states and operators, only some of which lead to goal states.

Equivalent problems with different representations.

Operators= actions that move between states.

Problem space= whole range of possible states and operators, only some of which will lead to goal state.

Isomorphs= equivalent problems with different representations (ex. number scramble and tic-tac-toe)

With no analogous problem, only 10% of subjects solved Dunker's ray problem.

If given the analogous military problem, still only about 30% were able to solve Dunker's ray problem.

But if given the analogy and hint, about80% of subjects were able to solve the problem.

See an object as having only a fixed, familiar function.

When we look at a new problem, we tend to encode it in a way consistent with...

Ability to notice analogies is improved when...

Functional Fixedness= seeing an object as having only a fixed, familiar function.

 When we look at a new proble, we tend to encode it in a way consistent with long-term memory.

Ability to notice analogies is improved when surface features are similar.

A completely specified sequence of steps that is guaranteed to produce an answer.

A short cut or "rule of thumb".

Algorithsms= completely specified sequence of steps that is guaranteer to produce an answer.

Usually guaranteed to produce the correct answer - but may be slow or laborious.

 Heuristics= a short cute or "rule of thumb".

Never guaranteed to produce the correct answer - but usually quick a nd easy.

Do think-aloud protocols reflect all of the reasons why a person tried a specific configuration (when trying to unscramble a word)?

What is difference reduction? and give an example where this does and does not work

NO...think-aloud protocols do not reflect all of the reasons why a person tried a specific configuration.

Difference reduction (hill climbing) is selecting an operator that moves you closer to the goal state - never choose an operator that moves you away.

Works if you're trying to get to California...doesn't work for the Hobbits and Orcs problem.

How does means-end analysis work?

Apply this to air travel.

In means-end analysis, you first identify the largest difference between your current state and goal state then you set up subgoals to reduce the difference and apply operators to reduce the difference.

Goal: Get to California.

 Operator: Fly in a plane.

Subgoal: Get to the airport.

 Operator: Drive your car.

Subgoal: Get to the car.

Operator: Walk to the car.

How can expertise not help with problem solving?

True expertise develops after how much time?

True/False: Improvement diminishes with time.

ACT predicts the power law of practice because of...

functional fixedness or having a mental set (such as with the water jug problem).

True expertise develops after 10,000 hours of practice - about 10 years.

TRUE: Improvement diminishes with time...it follows a power law...it takes a VERY long time to gain small amount of improvement that separates really good from great.

ACT predicts power law of practice because of Proceduralization and Composition.

What stage of problem solving do experts spend the most time in?

Do they utilize more or less means-end analysis?

Do they solve problems anterograde or retrogradely? 

Experts spend the most time in the representation stage of problem solving - they take longer to start solution, but less time completing it.

Experts utilize less means-end analysis - pre-stored solutions in LTM and few demands on working memory.

 They always solve problems anterogradely...always move forward, never backward.

The two kinds of reasoning:

The two theories of reasoning:

What is Bayes' Theorem?

Bayes' theorem is a normative theory

...the probability that a hypothesis is true given certain evidence.

p(E|H) vs p(H|E)...doctors confuse these.

When using representativeness heuristics, insufficient weight is given to the base rate.

What are simulation heuristics?

What are availability heuristics?

Simulation heuristics are judgements based on how easily it is to imagine how things will turn out in the future and how things would have turned you under different circumstances.

 Availability heuristics are judgements based on how relevant and easy something is to bring to mind.

Explain "causal links between actions and actors".

What is conjunction fallacy? 

What are framing effects?

It's easier to imagine circumstances from the point of view of the actor (driver in wrong lane example).

Conjunction fallacy occurs when people mistakenly believe that a conjunction of events (hot and sunny) is more common than a single event (just hot).

 Framing effects are those that lead to different decisions though they are the same information, just presented differently.

Three types of deductive reasoning:

The difference between particular and universal.

What is atmosphere effects? 

People are more likely to pick a syllogism if in linear order...what effect is this?

Three theories of deduction:

This is a figural effect

Three theories of deduction:

1.Formal rules

2.mental models

3.verbal reasoning

Errors occur when using formal rules because...

 Problems with formal rules...

Errors using mental models occur because...

Problem with mental models...

Errors using mental models occur because of working memory limitations (can't hold onto multiple models).

Problem with mental models is that constructing counterexamples is a very complex process that is specific to deduction...can people who are not trained in doing this use it?

The words that convey the bulk of the meaning of a language.

A morpheme that adds detail and nuance to the meaning of a content morpheme or helps the content morphemes fit the grammatical context.

Content Morphemes= the words that convey the bulk of the meaning of a language.

Function Morpheme= a morpheme that adds detail and nuance to the meaning of a content morpheme or helps the content morphemes fit the grammatical context.

The way in which users of a particular language put words together to form sentences.

Syntactic structure that contains at least one noun and includes all the relevant descriptors of the noun.

Syntactic structure that contains at least one verb and whatever the verb acts on, if anything.

The study of the meaning of language.

Syntax= the way in which users of a particular language put together to form sentences.

Noun phrase= syntacti structure that contains at least on noun and includes all the relevant descriptors of the noun.

Verb phrase= syntactic structure that contains at least one verb and whatever the verb acts on, if anything.

Semantics= the study of the meaning of language.

Occurs when phonemes or other units are produced in a way that overlaps them in time.

What are the three levels of the TRACE model?

Discontinuous categories of speech sound

Coarticulation= occurs when phonemes or other units are produced in a way that overlaps them in time.

The TRACE model is a model that says that speech perception begins with 3 levels of feature detection: the level of acoustic features, the level of phonemes, and the level of words - each level is interactive and the lower levels effect the higher levels and vice versa.

Categorical perception= discontinuous categories of speech sound.

Effect involving the synchrony of visual and auditory perceptions - soundtrack says "da" but actor says "ba"  so you hear "tha"

The study of language in terms of noticing regular patterns.

Syntactical analysis of the structure of phrases as they are used.

McGurk Effect= effect involving the synchrony of visual and auditory perceptions.

 Grammar= the study of language in terms of noticing regular patterns.

 Phrase-Structure Grammar= syntactical analysis of the structure of phrases as they are used.

The study of transformational rules that guide the ways in which underlying propositions can be rearranged to form various phrase structures.

The underlying syntactic structure that links various phrase structures through the application of various transformation rules.

A level of syntactic analysis that involves the specific syntactical sequence of words in a sentence and any of the various phrase structures that may result.

Transformational Grammar= the study of transformational rules that guide the ways in which underlying propositions can be rearranged to form various phrase structures.

 Deep Structure= the underlying syntactic structure that links various phrase structures through the application of various transformation rules.

Surface Structure= a level of syntactic analysis that involves the specific syntactical sequence of words in a sentence and any of the various phrase structures that may result.

The infant's oral expression that explores the production of vowel sounds and stage where infant can distinguish between all phonemes.

The infant's preferential production largely of those distinct phonemes - both consonants and vowels - that are characteristic of the infant's own language.

Errorously extending the meaning of words in the existing lexicon to cover things and ideas for which a new word is lacking. (calling any 4 legged animal "doggie")

Cooing= the infant's oral expression that explores the production of vowel sounds and stage where infant can distinguish between all phonemes (1st stage of language acquisition)

 Babbling= the infant's preferential production largely of those distinct phonemes - both consonants and vowels - that are characteristic of the infant's own language.

Overextension Error= errorously extending the meaning of words in the existing lexicon to cover things and ideas for which a new word is lacking - One-word utterance stage

A biologically innate mechanism that facilitates language acquisition.

A view of language acquisition that asserts that children acquire language by mentally forming tentative hypotheses regarding language, base on their inherited facility for language acquisition and then testing these hypotheses in the enviornment.

Occurs when individuals apply the general rules of of language to the exceptional cases that vary from the norm.

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)= a biologically innate mechanism that facilitates language acquisition.

Hypothesis Testing= A view of language acquisition that asserts that children acquire language by mentally forming tentative hypotheses regarding language, base on their inherited facility for language acquisition and then testing these hypotheses in the enviornment. 

 Overregularization= occurs when individuals apply the general rules of language to the exceptional cases that vary from the norm.

Impairment of language functioning caused by damage to the brain.

Men seem to show more ___ hemisphere dominance for linguisitic function than women show. Women show more ____/____ patterns of linguistic function.

What are production rules?

Aphasia= impairmnt of language functioning caused  by damage to the brain.

Men seem to show more left hemisphere dominance for linguistic function than women show. Women show more bilateral, symmetrical patterns of linguistic function. 

Production rules are if-then rules

An ordered set of productions in which execution starts at the top of a list of productions, continues until a condition is satisfied, and then returns to the top of the list to start anew.

A model of information processing that integrates a network representation for declarative knowledge and production-system representation for procedural knowledge.

Production System= an ordered set of productions in which execution starts at the top of a list of productions, continues until a condition is satisfied, and then returns to the top of the list to start anew.

ACT-R= a model of information processing t hat integrates a network representation for declarative knowledge and production-system representation for procedural knowledge..Separate declarative and procedural memory systems.

Excitation that fans out along set of nodes within a given network.

The overall process by which we transform slow, explicit information about procedures into speedy, implicit, implementations of procedures.

Knowledge representation of procedural skills occurs in three stages:

Spreading Activation= excitation that fans out along set of nodes within a given network.

 Proceduralization= the overall process by which we transform slow, explicit information about procedures into speedy, implicit implementations of procedures.

Knowledge representation of procedural skills occurs in three stages:

1.Cognitive - think about explicit rules for implementing the procedure

2.Associative - practice using the explicit rules extensively

3.Autonomous - use these rules automatically and implicitly

During this stage of proceduralization, we construct a single production rule that embraces two or more production rules...it thus streamlines the number of rules required for executing the procedure.

Sequences of operations that may be repeated over and over again and that, in theory, guarantee the solution to a problem.

Informal, intuitive, speculative strategies that sometimes lead to an effective solution and sometimes do not.

Composition= constructing a single production rule that embraces two or more production rules and thus streamlines the number of rules required for executing the procedure.

 Algorithms= sequences of operations that may be repeated over and over again and that, in theory, guarantee the solution to a problem.

 Heuristics= informal, intuitive, speculative strategies that sometimes lead to an effective solution and sometimes do not.

Strategy where the problem solver continually compares the current state and the goal state and takes steps to minimize the differences between the two states.

The formal structure is the same, and only the content differs. 

A frame of mind involving an existing model for representing a problem, a problem context, or a procedure for problem solving. 

Means-end Analysis= strategy where the problem solver continually compares the current state and the goal state and takes steps to minimize the differences between the two states.

Isomorphic= the formal structure is the same, and only the content differs.

Mental Set/Entrenchment= a frame of mind involving an existing model for representing a problem, a problem context, or a procedure for problem solving.

What is Negative and Positive Transfer?

People fail to notice analogies if _____ features are different.

Putting a problem aside for a while without consciously thinking about it - helps to minimize negative transfer.

Negative transfer occurs when solving an earlier problem makes it harder to solve a later one.

Positive transfer occurs when the solution of an earlier problem makes it easier to solve a new problem.

People fail to notice analogies if superficial features are different.

Incubation= putting a problem aside for a while without consciously thinking about it - helps to minimize negative transfer and allows the possibility that the problem will be processed subconsciously. 

This theory says that the goal of human action is to seek pleasure and avoid pain.

The belief that humans are rational, but within limits.

Occurs when we consider options one by one, and then we select an option as soon as we find one that is satisfactory or just good enough tomeet or minimum level of acceptibility.

Subjective Expected Utility Theory says that the goal of human action is to seek pleasure and avoid pain.

Bounded Rationality= the belief that humans are rational, but within limits.

Satisficing= occurs when we consider options one by one and then we select an option as soon as we find one that is satisfactory or just good enough to meet our minimum level of acceptibility. 

Eliminating alternatives by focusing on aspects of each alternative, one at a time.

Occurs when we judge the probability of an uncertain event according to its obvious similarity to or representation of the population from which it is derived and the degree to which it reflects the salient features of the process by which it is generated (such as randomness)

A mistaken belief that the probability of a given random event, such as winning or losing at a game of chance, is influenced by previous random events.

Elimination by Aspects= eliminating alternatives by focusing on aspects of each alternative, one at a time.

Representativeness occurs when we judge the probability of an uncertain event according to its obvious similarity to or representation of the population from which it is derived and the degree to which it reflects the salient features of the process by which it is generated (such as randomness)

 Gambler's Fallacy= a mistaken belief that the probability of a given random event, such as winning or losing at a game of chance, is influenced by previous random events.

An availability heuristic by which people adjust their evaluations of things by means of a certain reference point called end-anchors.

An individual's overevaluation of her or his own skills, knowledge, or judgment.

The decision to continue to invest in something simply because one has invested in it before and one hopes to recover one's investment.

Anchoring-and-Adjustment Heuristic= an availability heuristic by which people adjust their evaluations of things by means of a certain reference point called end-anchors.

Overconfidence= an individual's overevaluation of her or his own skills, knowledge, or judgment.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy= the decision to continue to invest in something simply because on has invested in it before and one hopes to recorver one's investment.

When we look at a situation retrospectively, we believe we easily can see all the signs and events leading up to a particular outcome.

The process of reasoning from one or more general statements regarding what is known to reach a logically certain conclusion.

The process of reasoning from specific facts or observations to reach a likely conclusion that may explain the facts.

Hindsight Bias= when we look at a situation retrospectively, we believe we easily can see all the signs and events leading up to a particular outcome.

Deductive Reasoning= the process of reasoning from one or more general statements regarding what is known to reach a logically certain conclusion.

Inductive Reasoning= the process of reasoning from specific facts or observations to reach a likely conclusion that may expain the facts.

Occurs when the reasoner must draw a conclusion based on an if-then proposition.

Logical soundness.

What is a modus ponens argument? Modus tollens?

Conditional Reasoning occurs when the reasoner must draw a conclusion based on an if-then proposition.

Deductive Validity= logical soundness.

In a modus ponens argument, the reasoner affirms the antecedent (p therefore q).

A modus tollens argument is one in which the reasoner denies the consequent (not q, therefore not p).

What is denying the antecedent? and what is affirming the consequent?

Erroneous reasoning.

General organizing principles or rules related to particular kinds of goals, such as permissions, obligations, or causations.

Denying the antecedent is not p, therefore not q.

Affirming the consequent is q therefore p.

Both are INVALID.

 Fallacies= erroneous reasoning

Pragmatic Reasoning Schemas= general organizing principles or rules related to particular kinds of goals, such as permissions, obligations or causations.

Deductive arguments that involve drawing conclusions from two premises.

Argument that involves linear relationships that involve a quantitative or qualitative comparison.

A deductive argument in which the relationship among the three terms are within a specific class or group.

Syllogism= deductive arguments that involve drawing conclusions from two premises.

Linear/Comparative Syllogism= argument that involves linear relationships that involve a quantitative or qualitative comparison.

Categorical Syllogism= a deductive argument in which the relationship among the three terms are within a specific class or group (ex. all cog psychs or are pianists. All pianists are athletes. Therefore, all cog psychs are atheletes).

The idea that we seak confirmation rather than disconfirmation of what we already believe.

The number of distinct ways a movement can be performed.

According to this, each component movement is triggered by the sensory feedback of the movement immediately before it.

Confirmation Bias= the idea that we seak confirmation rather than disconfirmation of what we already believe.

Degree of Freedom of Movement= the number of distinct ways a movement can be performed.

 Serial Order of Actions= each component movement is triggered by the sensory feedback of the movement immediately before it.

ACT-R assumes skill acquisition proceeds via
_______ which consists of ______ (converting pieces of declarative knowledge in production rules) and ______ (combining multiple
production rules into a single rule).

What three pieces of information are necessary in order to make a normative judgment according to the Baye's formula?

ACT-R assumes skill acquisition proceeds via knowledge compilation which consists of proceduralization (converting pieces of declarative knowledge in production rules) and compilation (combining multiple production rules into a single rule)

The 3 pieces of info necessary to make a normative judgment according to the Baye's formula are the base rate, hit rate, and false alarm rate.

The differences in one language to the next.

These convert a deep structure into other surface structures that mean the same thing.

Parameters= the differences in one language to the next.

 Transformational Rules convert a deep structure into other surface structures that mean the same thing.

Evidence for special speech:

Evidence against special speech:

Theory that people behave in ways that maximize their expected actual utility.

ACT distinguishes between ___ and ____ knowledge.

Evidence for special speech: Categorical Perception and the McGurk Effect

Evidence against special speech: TRACE model

Classical Decision Theory= theory that people behave in ways that maximize their expected actual utility.

ACT distinguishes between declarative and procedural knowledge.

___ are all the distinct language sounds across the world's languages. ___ are the subset that get used in a specific language to distinguish different words.

___ syllogisms involve quantifiers (all, some, no) while ___ syllogisms involve comparisons.

According to the mental model theory, ____ determines the difficulty of a syllogism.

Phones are all the distinct language sounds across the world's languages. Phonemes are the subset that get used in a specific language to distinguish different words.

Categorical syllogisms involve quantifiers (all, some, no) while Linear syllogisms involve comparisons.

According to the mental model theory, the number of models that must be considered determines the difficulty of a syllogism.