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Psych 101 Exam 2
Ch. 7, 8, 12: Learning, Memory, Development
139
Psychology
Undergraduate 2
03/26/2009

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Term
What are the three perspectives of learning and briefly explain each one?
Definition
1) Behavioral: classical/operant conditioning 2) Cognitive: concepts, higher order thinking 3) Biological: change in neurosystems after observed behavior
Term
Habituation
Definition
decrease in response after exposure to repeated stimulus
Term
What are the three main assumptions about learning?
Definition
1) Experience shapes behavior 2) Learning is adaptive/environmental 3) Laws of learning are applicable to animals and humans alike and can be observed
Term
stimulus
Definition
something in the environment that elicits a response
Term
response reflex
Definition
any behavior that is made in response to a stimulus
i.e. doctor striking knee with rubber hammer
Term
unconditioned stimulus and what type of conditioning it is in
Definition
CLASSICAL: UCS is something that naturally elicits a response prior to any learning
Term
unconditioned response and what type of conditioning it is in
Definition
CLASSICAL: UCR is a behavioral response that occurs naturally to UCS prior to learning/conditioning
ex: dogs salivate (UCR) in response to food (UCS)
Term
neutral stimulus (NS) and what type of conditioning it is in
Definition
CLASSICAL: a stimulus that does not produce the intended response, i.e. Pavlov's bell
- orienting response = recognition of stimulus
Term
conditioning
Definition
pairing a neutral stimulus with the UCS so that the NS becomes the CS
ex: bell creates salivation = conditioned response
- usually more effective if UCS is more intense than NS
Term
interstimulus interval and the three types
Definition
time interval between UCS and NS
i.e. time between train noise and puff of air
- optimal time = half second
1) forward conditioning (Pavlov): CS comes before UCS; bell before food = best results
2) simultaneous interval: CS at the same time as UCS
3) backward conditioning: CS comes after UCS; food before bell = least reliable conditioning
Term
simultaneous generalization + example
Definition
production of CR to stimuli similar to CS
ex: a variety of rustling bush noises for wild animals
Term
stimulus discrimination + example
Definition
response made only to a certain range of stimuli
ex: humans conditioned to eat only at certain times of day
Term
extinction
Definition
behavior produced less and less when CS is repeated without UCS --> weakened CS (less salivation without food)
Term
spontaneous recovery
Definition
when bell is paired with food, behavior suddently reappears "like riding a bike"
Term
blocking
Definition
second neutral stimulus has no effect, stimulus closest in time to UCR has conditioning effect
i.e. light-bell-food: bell would only have conditioned response
Term
second-order conditioning
Definition
pairing another neural stimulus with the original NS
Term
What's the deal with Little Albert?
Definition
Watson and Rayner study of conditioned phobias with loud noises and rats
Term
three types of exposure therapy?
Definition
1) mental imagery
2) systematic desensitization (gradually ramp up reality of phobia)
3) flooding: exposure to most realistic version of phobia
Term
taste aversion
Definition
- only takes one exposure to negative stimulus
- adaptive and evolutionary: predatory animal prevention
- rat example with radiation therapy
- Chemotherapy + taste aversion
Term
aversion therapy
Definition
- ex: pedophiles given electric shock when shown pictures of children
- alcoholics given alcohol + drug = sickness
- short term changes in behavior due to extinction
Term
operant conditioning
Definition
learning through consequences
Term
what are the three main differences between classical and operant conditioning?
Definition
1) voluntary behaviors or responses
2) have control over start/stop of behavior
3) CS occurs before behavior in CC; in OC, they come after
Term
Thorndike's Law of Effect
Definition
behaviors followed by satisfying consequence will occur more often; behavior followed by annoying consequence will less likely occur
Term
What are the four types of consequences?
Definition
positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, aversive (positive) punishment, response cost (negative)
Term
what are the effects of reinforcement?
Definition
STRENGTHENS frequency or likelihood of behavior by using consequence
Term
positive reinforcement
Definition
consequence is the adding of a stimulus to increase a behavior
- ex: giving a child a toy for cleaning room
Term
primary vs. secondary reinforcer
Definition
- primary reinforcer: biological needs, food, water
- secondary reinforcer: something that allows you to get a primary reinforcer, material goods
Term
negative reinforcement
Definition
consequence is the REMOVAL of an aversive stimulus
- ex: child cleans room, parents stop nagging
Term
outcomes of punishment
Definition
DECREASES the likelihood and intensity of behavior
- ex: electric shock, bad grade
Term
aversive (positive) punishment
Definition
behavior weakened by presence of punishment
- electric shock, spanking
Term
response cost (negative)
Definition
removing a welcome stimulus
- i.e. loss of privilege, possession, monetary fines, etc.
Term
What are necessary characteristics of punishments in order for them to be effective?
Definition
consistency, immediacy, intense
Term
contingency
Definition
behavior + consequence
Term
shaping
Definition
using smaller approximations of behavior and reinforcing them
ex: training a dog gradually to jump on its hind legs
Term
chaining
Definition
training last step of sequence and working backwards
i.e. rat through a maze; sequence of behaviors
Term
continuous reinforcement
Definition
every time behavior is done, it is punished, 1:1 ratio
Term
what are the four types of partial (intermittent) reinforcement?
Definition
fixed ratio, variable-ratio schedule, fixed interval schedule, variable interval
Term
fixed ratio
Definition
reinforced for a set number of responses
- high rates of behavior
- pausing each time it is reinforced
- credit cards, punch cards
Term
variable-ratio schedule
Definition
reinforcement occurs after a changing number of responses: average number is set
- produces high rate of behavior
- more consistent rate, less pausing, less extinction
- ex: slot machines, lottery
Term
fixed interval schedule
Definition
first response after a certain amount of time is reinforced
- slowing after reinforcement
- ex: midterm exams
Term
variable interval
Definition
first response after a variable amount of time is reinforced: averages to a given value
- steadier responses
- ex: pop quizzes, radio sweepstakes "during this hour"
Term
behaviorist model of learning
Definition
behavior is predictable based on classical or operant conditioning: biological basis for learning
Term
learned helplessness
Definition
over time, repeated aversive events lead to EXPECTANCY that one cannot escape them; decrease in learning and motivation
- different from behaviorist model because the organism is THINKING between stimulus and response
- i.e. Rescorla's study of tone + shock, nothing + shock conditioned organisms equally for both responses
Term
cognitive maps
Definition
roundabout maze for food --> direct pathway for mice: evidence that they have a mental layout and will use it to their advantage; not conditioned for a direct route
Term
latent learning
Definition
learning that is hidden and occurs but is not demonstrated until later when there si an incentive to perform
- no motivation, many errors in maze
- after rewarded with food --> fewer errors, jump in learning curve
Term
self-evaluations
Definition
religious, political people: predisposed cognitive self-evaluation
- feelings of pride, living up to standard
Term
observational learning and the four steps of SOR
Definition
behaviors that are acquired because you've seen someone else do it
- Stimulus-Organism-Response (SOR) Learning based on 1) attention, 2) retention, 3) reproduction, 4) motivation
- i.e. reproduction of behavior on clown dolls
Term
synaptic change
Definition
neurological changes when learning occurs; sensory neurons develop more release points, more neurons develop receptor sites
Term
information processing model of memory + two types
Definition
most dominant model: different types of information processed at different stages of memory
1) sensory memory: brief memories for sensory events (flashing letters)
2) Partial report conditioning: entire image stored briefly in picture form but decays too quickly to process or retrieve
Term
sensory memory + 2 subcategories
Definition
memory that briefly holds incoming sensory information.
Iconic memory: visual memory for sensory info
Echoic memory: capacity for sounds
- large capacity, brief storage
Term
Short-Term (Working) Memory (generally)
Definition
A memory that temporarily holds a limited amount of info, allowing us to maintain it in consciousness: very brief retention
Term
three types of STM
Definition
1) visuospacial sketchpad: stores visual and spatial info
2) phonological loop: storage of representations of sounds
3) central executive: directs overall action
(episodic buffer)
Term
phonological loop
Definition
element of short term memory that briefly stores mental representations of sounds
- Phonological store or code created
- Phonological confusion: remembering words, letters or numbers that don't rhyme or sound alike
- Articulatory expression: cannot focus on more than one thing at a time
Term
rehearsal
Definition
maintenance rehearsal = repetition
elaborative rehearsal = meaning of info
magic # = 7 +/- 2
Term
Chunking
Definition
dividing information into sections or groups for easier understanding and memory
Term
long-term memory
Definition
memories that last past consciousness
- capacity, duration and code are all infinitely large
Term
encoding
Definition
the initial processing of information and storage into memory
Term
retrieval + the two types
Definition
re-accessing encoded memories
1) recall = freely generated (i.e. short answer)
2) recognition = assess whether old/new, correct/incorrect (i.e. multiple choice, T/F)
Term
what are the two levels of processing for long term memory?
Definition
1) deeper processing: processing for meaning
2) shallow processing: visual, sound characteristics
Term
episodic memory + what type of memory
Definition
LTM: memories for events that happened to you personally
- first-hand perspective
- code = sights, sounds, senses of event
Term
semantic memory + what type of memory
Definition
LTM: organized knowledge about the world; factual information
- code = verbal or language-based
Term
procedural memory + what type of memory is it?
Definition
LTM: knowledge about how to do something, procedural in nature
- code = not always verbal, sometimes motor-based
Term
declarative vs. nondeclarative memory?
Definition
- declarative (explicit) memory can be consciously recollected and verbally shared (i.e. episodic, semantic)
- non-declarative (implicit) memory cannot be consciously or verbally reported (i.e. procedural)
Term
serial position effect + two types?
Definition
effect of order in which info is presented
1) primacy effect: items at beginning of list best remembered (LTM)
2) items at the end of list best remembered
Term
what is interference and what are the two types of interference?
Definition
Decreased efficiency in remembering something because of learning something else:
1) Proactive interference: list A prevents proper learning of list B (i.e. old info blocks new info)
2) Retroactive interference: where newer information locks older information.
* the more closely related the information, the more interference
Term
self-reference effect
Definition
tendency to remember more information if it is about the self
Term
encoding specificity
Definition
the connection between study conditions and test conditions: greater likelihood for recall: emotional states, levels of activity, MOOD DEPENDENCE
- ex: underwater word list study
Term
explain the Networks of Activation and Spreading Activation model of storage and organization
Definition
Nodes of information activate one concept --> related concepts become activated (ex: fire engine --> red)
Term
explain the Hierarchical model of storage and organization
Definition
concepts are stored by categories: distinguished by characteristics or features: "birds," "cities in Canada," etc.
Term
generate effect of study?
Definition
more likely to remember information if during studying, you actively retrieve information rather than passively receive or "memorize"
Term
massed vs. distributed practice
Definition
reviewing same thing over and over vs. distributing information over time
Term
is there a connection between expertise and better memory?
Definition
expertise does not equal better memory: chess masters vs. novices in remembering board pieces; poor at randomly placed pieces, stronger at situational
Term
H.M.'s memory deficits
Definition
- short-term memory fine
- could remember name, occupation, language, events before surgery
- Anterograde amnesia: frozen in 1950s; episodic AND semantic deficits
- Retrograde Amnesia: could not remember events in the weeks leading up to surgery because it was not yet encoded into LTM
- motor skills, word stems and priming
Term
Clive Wearing's memory deficits?
Definition
- infection in brain led to severe memory deficits: damage to temporal & frontal lobes
- only memory is his consciousness
- severe amnesia
Term
storage
Definition
maintaining information in LTM over time
Term
mnemonic device
Definition
a memory aid for organizing information into more meaningful units and providing extra cues to help retrieve info from LTM
- visual imagery, mental pictures
- organization, acronyms
Term
consistency bias
Definition
changing attitudes --> reconstructive memory
i.e. attitudes towards abortion ten years ago vs. now
Term
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Definition
- predict same first letter of word and number of syllables half the time
- words organized by physical characteristics; meaning kept separate
- can often remember within 2 minutes
- universal experience
- metacognition: awareness about your own mental processes
Term
directed forgetting
Definition
people are capable of changing connections of info in brain and letting them be forgotten and replaced if told or if necessary
- forget vs. remember experiment
Term
misattribution
Definition
recollection of an incorrect time, place, person, event; self-generated memories vs. actually encountered memories
- i.e. "sweet" in word list
Term
childhood amnesia
Definition
inability to remember experiences before the age of three; may not have developed sense of meaning, hierarchy system or language
Term
power of suggestion
Definition
memories influenced by false or misleading information
- ex: car accident
- suggestibility in children, custody cases
Term
prospective memory
Definition
memory for events that need to be accomplished in the future
Term
flashbulb memory
Definition
began studying after JFK assassination: clearer memories for specific, important events? --> actually, memory is no better than for other events
Term
mood congruence
Definition
negative events, situations, etc. remembered better than positive ones
Term
developmental psychology
Definition
the study of the way humans develop over time
Term
what are the three types of human development?
Definition
1) physical: changes in body, brain, physical abilities
2) Cognitive: ways our thinking changes as we develop, changes in processing and thinking abilities
3) Social: changes in the way we interact with others
Term
what are the three key issues in relation to human development?
Definition
1) Nature vs. Nurture
2) Whether development occurs during critical vs. sensitive periods (ex: language development)
3) Development occurs continually vs. discontinually?
Term
critical vs. sensitive periods
Definition
Critical period: the time period where development must occur or opportunity is lost
Sensitive: time period that is important to development but not necessarily prevents future events from happening
Term
Explain the stage-based models vs. continuous models for the key issue #3 of continuity vs. discontinuity in human development
Definition
Stage-based model: each stage of development is qualitatively different from one another
Continuous model: Development happens gradually and constantly
Term
cross-sectional design
Definition
measures people of different ages at a single time
- weakness = different individual experiences/upbringings
- strength = quick, easy
- ex: knowledge of computer technology
Term
longitudinal design
Definition
test same cohort or group over time
- strength: removes individual differences
- weakness: unique cohort effects, costly, takes long time, dropouts
- ex: 7 Up documentary!
Term
sequential design
Definition
combines cross-sectional and longitudinal designs: tracks different age groups over time
- most complete but very costly and time-consuming study
Term
what are the three main stages of prenatal development?
Definition
germinal period, embryonic period, fetal period
Term
germinal stage of prenatal development
Definition
first two weeks:
- zygote stage = fertilized egg; attaches to uterus 10-14 days after conception
- about half fail to attach (especially male)
Term
embryonic stage of prenatal development
Definition
weeks 2-8:
- placenta, umbilical cord
- bodily organs and systems begin to form
- sex determined by level of testosterone
Term
fetal stage of prenatal development
Definition
week 9 until birth:
- muscles strengthen, bodily systems develop
- age of viability = 24 weeks
- size restraints on brain size
Term
teratogens
Definition
external agents that cause abnormal prenatal developments:
- rubella, STDs, environmental toxins, drugs, alcohol, Nicotine
Term
sensory capabilities and perceptual preferences of newborns
Definition
- very nearsighted
- Preferential Looking Procedure: infants prefer to look at complex patterns, prefer mother's face
- reasonably well developed sense of taste, touch, smell
- prefer human voices to other sounds
Term
reflexes and learning of newborns
Definition
Reflexes: automatic, inborn behaviors that occur in response to specific stimuli
Rooting Reflex: turn head towards touch
Sucking Reflex: suck on objects in mouth
- can be classically conditioned
- can imitate facial expressions
Term
maturation
Definition
genetically programmed biological processes that govern our growth
- infants acquire particular skills; appear in same sequence
Term
cephalocaudal principle
Definition
tendency for development to proceed in a head-to-foot direction
Term
proximodistal principle
Definition
development begins along the innermost parts of the body and continues toward the outermost parts
Term
schemas
Definition
Piaget's model: organized patterns of thought and action
i.e. sucking reflex, "doggie" identification
Term
assimilation vs. accommodation of schemas?
Definition
Assimilation: new experiences incorporated into existing schemas
- thumbsucking, calling a cat "doggie"

Accommodation: modify or change existing schemas with new information
Term
Piaget's theory of cognitive development
Definition
one must acquire skills sequentially in order to move on to the next
Term
sensorimotor stage of Piaget's cog dev model
Definition
Age 0-2
- understand their world through sensory experiences, physical interactions
- lack object permanence
- language starts around age 1
Term
Preoperational stage
Definition
age 2-7
- represent their world through words and mental images
- lack understanding of basic mental operations or rules
- conservation of liquid, number, mass
- irreversibility and centration
- animism
- egocentrism
Term
concrete operational stage of Piaget's cog dev model
Definition
age 7-12
- perform mental problems concerning concrete objects or situations
- reversibility, theory of mind
- difficulty with abstract reasoning
Term
formal operational stage of Piaget's cog dev model
Definition
age 12 --> adolescence:
- ability to think logically and systematically about concrete and abstract problems
Term
zone of proximal development
Definition
the difference between what a child can do independently and what they can do with the assistance from an adult or more advanced peer
- ex: visual search, attention span and speed increase
Term
Temperament
Definition
a biologically based general style of reacting emotionally and behaviorally to the environment
- "easy," "difficult," or "slow-to-warm-up" children
- overall temperament is weakly stable during infancy, but strongly stable throughout childhood
Term
attachment
Definition
emotional connection between child and their primary caregiver
- first few years of life seem to be critical period
- monkey experiments
Term
Theory of Mind
Definition
a person's beliefs about the "mind" and the ability to understand other people's mental states (difficult for younger children)
Term
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory
Definition
personality develops through confronting a series of eight major psychosocial stages, each of which involves a different "crisis" over how we view ourselves in relation to other people and the world
Term
stranger anxiety
Definition
distress over contact with unfamiliar people
- emerges around 6-7 months, ends by 18 months
Term
separation anxiety
Definition
distress over being separated from a primary caregiver
- peaks around 12-16 months, disappears between 2-3 years of age
Term
physical development in adulthood
Definition
- maximum muscle strength reached at 25-30
- vision, hearing, reaction time and coordination peak in early to mid-20s
- muscles become weaker and less flexible after 40
- metabolism slows
- visual acuity declines during middle age
Term
the adult brain
Definition
neural networks continue to become more efficient
- brain declines in later adulthood
Term
reasoning and information processing
Definition
- info processing, memory, and fluid intelligence decline during adulthood
- crystallized intelligence: ability to remember and retain info
- fluid intelligence: ability to problem solve, on-your-feet thinking
Term
cognitive impairment in old age
Definition
symptoms of dimentia:
- impaired memory, poor judgement, language problems, disorientation, uninhibited behavior, loss of ability to perform familiar tasks, significant physical decline --> NOT inevitable
Term
Freud's psychosexual theory of development
Definition
stage theory: stages or time periods of development: person can either complete or not complete stages before moving on, incompletion leads to unhealthy personality
- each stage represented by an erogenous zone
Term
what are the five stages of Freud's psychosexual theory of development?
Definition
1) oral stage
2) anal stage
3) phallic stage
4) latency stage
5) genital stage
Term
oral stage of Freud's PTOD?
Definition
birth --> 18 mos
- focus on oral pleasures
- too much/too little = oral fixation
- may lead to smoking, nail biting, drinking, etc.
Term
anal stage of Freud's PTOD?
Definition
18 mos --> 3 years
- bladder control
- over/under development --> anal fixation
- anal retentive = obsession with cleanliness, perfection and control
- anal expulsive = messy and disorganized
Term
phallic stage of Freud's PTOD?
Definition
3-6 years
- focus on males, genitals
- boys develop unconscious desires for mothers and hatred for fathers (competition)
- eventual fear of father leads to identification with him
- Electra complex = opposite
- fixation --> sexual deviancies; weak or confused sexual identities
Term
latency stage of Freud's PTOD?
Definition
6 years --> puberty
- sexual urges repressed
- children interact with same sex peers
Term
genital stage of Freud's PTOD?
Definition
puberty --> forevaaa
- reawakened sexual urges, interest in opposite sex
Term
stages of emotional development
Definition
- distress = very early development
- surprise and joy = 7 mos
- sense of self = 18 mos; envy and embarrassment follow
Term
moral developmental stages
Definition
1) Preconventional stage: consequences are used to determine right/wrong
2) Conventional stage: social rules govern right/wrong
3) Postconventional stage: personal ethical rules and values
- moral intuition: emotions influence morality
Term
aphasia
Definition
impairment in speech comprehension and/or production
Term
long-term potentiation
Definition
an enduring increase in synaptic strength that occurs after a neural circuit is rapidly stimulated
Term
source/monitoring confusion
Definition
the tendency to recall something or recognize it as familiar but to forget where it was encountered
Term
Korsakoff's syndrome
Definition
brain disorder caused by lack of thyamine in the brain
Term
escape conditioning
Definition
the organism learns a response to terminate an aversive stimulus
Term
avoidance conditioning
Definition
the organism learns a response to avoid an aversive stimulus
Term
token economics
Definition
desirable behaviors are quickly reinforced with tokens that are later turned in for tangible rewards (Chuckie Cheese)
Term
generalization and discrimination in operant/classical conditioning
Definition
generalization: response to similar stimuli
discrimination: response will occur to one stimulus but not another
Term
higher-order conditioning
Definition
in classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus after it is paired with another conditioned stimulus (rather than with the original UCS)
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