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Psych 101 - Exam 2
Ch.4-6
109
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
02/12/2009
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Term
ch. 4 Learning
 
 
Learning
Definition
  • a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience, provided that the change cannot be explained by nature response tendencies, maturation or temporary states (sleeping, drugs, etc.)
  • learn by association
  • our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence

 

 

 
Term
2 Types of Learning: 
 
 
Stimulus-Stimulus Learning (Classical Conditioning)
Definition
  • "Acquiring a new response (the conditioned response) to a previously neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) that reliably signals the arrival of an unconditioned stimulus"
    • dog + popcorn- hears popping becomes excited
    • people: lightning = thunder, wince after seeing lightning
  • Jaws theme song --> fea/anxiety
    • jaws/shark = fear
    • music = jaws
    • music = fear
Term
Classical Conditioning
 
 
Reflex
Definition
  • a stimulus-response pair (food in mouth & salivation) in which the stiumlus (unconditioned stimulus) automatically elicits the response (the unconditioned response)
  • dogs salivates when food is in mouth
Term
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
 
 
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Definition
  • naturally occuring stimulus
  • "the stimulus in a reflex that automatically elicits an unconditioned response"
  • i.e. FOOD
Term
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
 
 
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Definition
  • naturally occuring response to stimulus
  • "the response in a reflex that is automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus"
  • i.e. SALIVATING
Term
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
 
 
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
 Definition
  • Stimulus that does not elicit any response preconditioning
  • i.e. TONE
Term
Classical Conditioning
 
 
Pavlov's Experiments: Post-Conditioning
 
 
 Definition
  •  during conditioning the neutral stimulus (tone) and the UCS (food) are paired together, resulting in the UCR (salivation)

 
Term
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
 
 
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Definition
  • formerly the neutral stimulus, the CS now triggers the response
  • "the stimulus that comes to elicit a new response (the conditioned response) in classical conditioning"
  • i.e. TONE
Term
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
 
 
Conditioned Response (CR)
Definition
  • formerly the UCR (salivation), the response now occurs w/ each presentation of the CS (tone) even w/out the UCS (food)
  • "the response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning"
Term
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
 
 
Delayed Conditioning
Definition
  • "a classical conditioning procedure in which the conditioned stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus and remains present until adter theunconditioned stimulus is presented so that the 2 stimuli occur together."
  • i.e. the tone would be ON and even after the food was in the dog's mouth
Term

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

 

 

Trace Conditioning

Definition
  • "classical conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus preceds the unconditioned stiumulus but is removed before the unconditioned stiumus is present so the 2 stiumulus do not occur together"
  • i.e. turning the tone on and then off, waiting a few secs and then putting the food in the dogs mouth
Term
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
 
 
Extinction
Definition
  • if you stop pairing the UCS (food) and the CS (tone), the CR (salivation) begins to decline and eventually becomes extinct
  • i.e. dog would eventually stop salivating if the tone no longer signaled the arrival of food
Term

 

 

 

Spontaneous Recovery

Definition
  • after a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers but if the CS (tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again
  • "a partial recovery in strength of the conditioned response following a break during extinction training"
Term

 

 

 

Stimulus Generalization

Definition
  • learners will often generalize and produce CR to stimuli that are close to CS
  • "the elicitation of the CR to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus. the more similar the stimulus is to the conditioned stimulu, the stronger the respsonse."
  • ex. Pavlov put vibrator on dog's thigh moved to other parts of body and measured response
Term

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

 

 

 John Watson

 Definition
  • founded psychological branch called "Behaviorism"
  • claimed all behavior = result of conditioning
  • tested theories on Little Albert
    • no fear of white rat - introduced loud clang w/white ran =Little Albert cried when he saw white rat or any other furry creature
Term
Classical Conditioning
 
 
Acquisition
 
 Definition
  • acquiring a new response (the conditioned response) to the conditioned stimulus
  • Little Albert acquired the fear of a white rat
Term
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
 
 
 Stimulus Discrimination
Definition
  • "the elicitation of conditioned response only by the conditioned stimulus or only by a small set of highly similar stimuli that includes the conditioned stimulus"
  • discrimination leads to the CR being given to a narrower set of stimuli
  • learning to fear only potentially dangerous dogs instead of all dogs
Term

 

 

 

Response-Consequence Learning (Operant Conditioning)

 Definition
  • "learning to associate behaviors with their consequences.  Behaviors that are reinforced (lead to satisfying consequences) will be strengethened, and behaviors that are punished (lead to unsatisfying consequences) will be weakened."
  • dog sits - gets popcorn = dog now sits a lot
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Thorndike's Puzzle Box & Law of Effect
Definition
  • Law of Effect = rewarded behavior is likely to occur again
    • "any behavior that results in satisfying consequences tends to be repeated and that any behavior that results in unsatisfying consequences tends not to be repeated."
  • Thorndike created a puzzle box, put cat in box, cat must fin lever to open box & rewarded w/ food
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Reinforcement (pos. & neg.)
 Definition
  • increase desirable behavior
  • "the process by which the probability of a response is increased by the presentation of a reinfocer"
  • can be positive (adding something)
    • receiving a pay check
    • "reinforcement in which an appetitive stimulus is presented"
  • can be negative (taking something away)
    • turning off beeping by fastening seatbelt
    • "reinforcement in which an aversive stimulus is removed"
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Reinforcer
Definition
  • "a stimulus that increases the probabilityof a prior response"
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Punishment (pos. & neg.)
Definition
  • decrease undesirable behavior (decrease likelyhood of it happening in the future)
  • "the process by which the probability of a response is decreased by the presentation of a punisher"
  • positive (adding something) - undesired stimulus present
    • spanking
    • "punishment in which an aversive stimulus is presented"
  • negative (taking something away) - desired stimulus removed
    • toys taken away - clean room
    • "punishment in which an appetitive stimulus is removed"
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Punisher
Definition
  • "a stimulus that decreases the probability of a prior response"
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Appetitive Stimulus
Definition
  • "a stimulus that is pleasant"
  • ex. food, money, good grades
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Aversive Stimulus
Definition
  • "a stimulus that is unpleasant"
  • ex. strong electric shock, bad grades, sickness
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Primary Reinforcer
Definition
  • "a stimulus that is innately reinforcing"
    • food & water
  • the reinforcing property fo the stimulus does not have to be learned
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Secondary Reinforcer
Definition
  • "a stimulus that gains reinforcing property through learning"
    • money, good grades & applause
  • it's reinforcing nature has to be learned through experience
Term

 
 
Behavior Modification
Definition
  • the application of classical and operant conditioning principles to eliminate undersirable behavior and to teach more desirable behavior
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Shaping
Definition
  • "training a human or animal to make an operant response by reinfocing successive approximations of the desired response"
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Cumulative Record
Definition
  • "a record of the total number of operant responses over time that visually depicts the rate of responding"
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Acquisition
Definition
  • "the strengething of a reinforced operant response"
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Extinction
Definition
  • "the diminishing of the operant response when it is no longer reinforced"
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Discriminative Stimulus
Definition
  • the stimulus that has to be present for the operant response to be reinforced
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Stimulus Discrimination
Definition
  • learning to give the operant response (pressing the lever) only in the presence of the discriminative stimulus (the light)
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
 Stimulus Generalization
 Definition
  • giving the operant response in the presence of stimuli similar to the disciminative stimulus.
  • the more similar the stimulus is to the discriminative stimulus, thehigher the operant response rate
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Continuous Schedule of Reinforcement
Definition
  • reinforcing the desired operant resonse each time it is made
  • not like reality
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Partial Schedule of Reinforcement
Definition
  • reinforcing the desired operant response only part of the time
  • are more resistant to extinction
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Ratio Schedules: Fixed vs. Variable
Definition
  • r.s. based on the # of responses made
  • fixed: rat must press lever 10 times to receive food
  • variable: uncertain how many times rat must press lever to receive food
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Interval Schedule: fixed vs. variable
Definition
  • i.s. based on the amount of time that has elapsed
  • fixed: after pressing lever, rat would wait 1 minute to receive food
  • variable: time span changes
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Do Rewards Always Strengthen Behavior?
Definition
  • depends on motivation for doing task
Term
Operant Conditioning
 
 
Motivation
Definition
  • the set of internal and external factors that energize our behavior and direct it toward goals
Term
Operant Conditioning - Motivation
 
 
 Drive-Reduction Theory
Definition
  • a theory of motivation which proposes that our behavior is motivated to reduce drives (bodily tension states) created by unsatisfied bodily needs to return the body to a balanced internal state
Term
Operant Conditioning - Motivation
 
 
Incentive Theory
Definition
  • a theory of motivation which proposes that our behavior is motivated by incentives, external stimuli that we have learned to associate with reinforcement
Term
Operant Conditioning - Motivation
 
 
Arousal Theory
Definition
  • a theory of motivation which proposes that our behavior is motivated to maintain an optimal level of physiological arousal
Term
Operant Conditioning - Motivation
 
 
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Definition
  • a law describing the relationship btwn the amount of arousal and the performance quality on a task - increasing arousal up to some optimal level increases performance quality on a task but increasing arousla past this point is detrimental to performance
Term
Operant Conditioning - Motivation
 
 
Intrinsic Motivation
Definition
  • engage in a particular behavior for internal satisfaction
Term
Operant Conditioning - Motivation
 
 
 Extrinsic Motivation
Definition
  • engage in activity for external reward
Term
Operant Conditioning - Motivation
 
 
Lepper & Greene (1979)
Definition
  • kids drawing during free time
  • expected reward - good drawing = gold star
  • unexpected reward - drew = gold star unexpectedly
  • control group - drew = no reward
  • Results:
    • unexpected & control drew = as much
    • expected spent less time drawing
    • intrinsic motivation = drawing for fun
    • extrinsic motivation  = no expected reward, don't try as hard
Term
Operant Conditioning - Motivation
 
 
Overjustification Effect
Definition
  • extrinsic reinforcers determine intrinsic motivation
  • overjustify the influence an extrinsic reward had on our motivation
    • drew b/c get reward so w/out reward why draw
    • rewarded me for drawin, so drawing must be worthwhile in it's own right
Term
Learning
 
 
Observational Learning
Definition
  • learning by watching others - even w/ or w/out rewar/punishment
  • tendency to learn thru observation seems to be rooted in biology
  • "mirror neurons" = neurons that fire both when observers watch an action being performed as well as when they actually perform the action themselves
    • monkeys in Italy w/ peanuts
    • autism might be attributed to broken mirror neurons 
Term
Learning
 
 
 Observational Learning & Aggression
Definition
  • Albert Bandura
  • child showed video of an adult being aggressive towards a BoBo doll
  • kids put in room w/ BoBo doll - found that they beat up BoBo doll
  • media violence & aggression
Term
Learning
 
 
Latent Learning
Definition
  • leanring that occurs but is not demonstrated until there is incentive to do so
Term
ch. 5 Memory
 
 
Memory
Definition
  • tend to remember things w/ strong emotion connected to it
  • forming connections btwn things
Term
Memory
 
 
Memory Stages - Sensory Memory
Definition
  • the sense momentarily register amazing detail
  • for about 1 sec, we can remember most of what we have just encountered
  • "the set of sensory registers, one for each of our sense, that serve as holding places for incoming sensory information until it can be attended to, interpreted, and encoded into short-term memory"
Term
Memory
 
 
Iconic Memory
Definition
  • the visual sensory register that holds an exact copy of the incoming visual input but only for a brief period of time, less than a sec.
Term
Memory
 
 
 Temporal Integration Procedure
Definition
  • an experimental procedure in which 2 meaningless visual patterns that produce a meaningful patter if integrated are presented sequentially with the time delay between presentations varied.
Term
Memory
 
 
Short-Term Memory
Definition
  • a few items are both noticed and encoded
  • if we notice the information we encounter, we can maintain it for 20-30 sec
  • "the memory stage with small capacity and brief duration that we are consciously aware of and in which we do our problem solving, reasoning, and decision making"
Term
Memory
 
 
 Memory Span Task
Definition
  • a memory task in which the participant is given a series of items one at a time and then has to recall the items in the order in which they were presented
Term
Memory
 
 
Memory Span
Definition
  • the average number of items an individual can remember across a series of memory span trials
Term
Memory
 
 
Distractor Task
Definition
  • a memory task in which a small amount of information is briefly presented and then the participant is distracted from rehearsing the information for a variable period of time, after which the participant has to recall the information
Term
Memory
 
 
Maintenance Rehearsal
Definition
  • a type of rehearsal in short-term memory in which the information is repeated over andover again in order to maintain it
Term
Memory
 
 
Long-Term Memory
Definition
  • some items are altered or lost
  • if info is repeated, elaborated or particularly emotional, we may remember the information indefinitely
Term
Memory
 
 
Explicit (declarative) Memory
Definition
  • long-term memory for factual knowledge and personal experiences.
  • requires a conscious effort to remember and entails making declarations about the information remembered
Term
Memory
 
 
Semantic Memory
Definition
  • Explicit memory for factual knowledge
Term
Memory
 
 
Episodic Memory
Definition
  • explicit memory for personal experiences
Term
Memory
 
 
Implicit (nondeclarative) Memory
Definition
  • long-term memory for procedural motor and cognitive tasks and conditioning effects
  • does not require conscious awareness or the need to make declarations about the information remembered
Term
Memory
 
 
Procedural Memory
Definition
  • implicit memory for cognitive and motor tasks that have a physical procedural aspect to them
Term
Memory
 
 
Retrieval from Long-Term Memory
Definition
  • depending on interference, retrieval cues, moods, and motives, some things get retrieved, some don't
  • whether or not we will acurately retrieve anybit of info that we have stored depends on extraneous factors
    • what we believe to be true
    • contect we are in
Term
Memory
 
 
Encoding
Definition
  • the process of moving info from one memory stage to next (sensory memory into short temr or from short-term into long-term)
Term
Memory - Encoding
 
 
Change Blindness
Definition
  • Simons & Levin - studied the extent to which people fail to notice changes (even important changes) in scenes
  • fewer than half participants noticed that the person had changed
  • conclusion = people encode many details at only surface leve, meaning they are less likely to remeber those details later or notice if they have changed
Term
Memory - Encoding
 
 
Automatic Encoding
Definition
  • despite our tendency to overlook some important details in a scene, we seem to effortlessly encode some piecs of information
  • space = while reading textbook, automatically encode the palce of a picture on a page
  • time = unintentionally notice approx. time of events that take place i day
  • frequency = effortlessly keep track of approx. # of time that things happen to you
  • distinctiveness = encode info that is particularly distinctive in some way
Term
Memory
 
 
Repetition & Memory
Definition
  • the more time we repeat or encounter something, the more like we are to encode it in our long-term memory
Term
Memory
 
 
Primacy Effect
Definition
  • easy to recall the early portion of a list
Term
Memory
 
 
Recency Effect
Definition
  • easy to recall latter portion of a list
Term
Memory
 
 
Elaboration & Memory
Definition
  • better for long-term memory if you think hard about the info's meaning
  • connecting things to prior knowledge
  • Craik & Lockhart
    • Structural Encoding- visual struct. of word = shallow
    • Phonemic encoding - sound of word = intermediate
    • Semantic encoding - type of word = deep
Term
Memory
 
 
Mnemonic Strategies
Definition
  • techniques that help encode info into Long-Term memory
  • pegword system, interactive images, method of loci, acronym, acrostic, categorical clustering, number-shape system
Term
Memory
 
 
Emotional Stimuli & Memory
Definition
  • LaBar & Phelps
  • showed participants list of words containing both emotional and neutral items
  • tested memory immediately afterwards
  • remember more emotional words than neutral words
  • same w/ Dolcos, et al.
Term
Memory
 
 
Flashbulb Memory
Definition
  • a unique and highly emotional moment may give rise to a clear strong and persistent memory
  • epitome of emotional memory
  • memories are often inaccurate
  • tend to incorporate highly publicized images of an event into our own memory experience and think that we actually experienced it
Term
Memory
 
 
Encoding Specificity
Definition
  • the environment cues present at encoding will serve as good cues for retrieval
    • mood
    • physical environment
    • gum chewing
    • inebriated state
  • Context Effects
    • greater recall when learning and testing contexts are the same
Term
Memory
 
 
Storage Decay Theory
Definition
  • "a theory of forgetting that proposes that forgetting is due to the decay of the biological representation of the information and that periodic usage of the information will help to maintain it in storage"
Term
Memory
 
 
Interference Theory
Definition
  • "a theory of fogetting that proposes that forgetting is due to other information in memory interfering and thereby making the to-be-remembered information inaccessible"
Term
Memory
 
 
Proactive Interference
Definition
  • the disruptive effect of prior learning on the retrieval of new information
Term
Memory
 
 
Retroactive Interference
Definition
  • the disruptive effect of new learning on the retrieval of old information
Term
Memory
 
 
 Memory Construction
 Definition
  • what we remember often depends on what seems to be most likely, given the bits of info we have and what we believe to be true
  • while tapping our memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of info to make our recall more coherent
Term
Memory
 
 
Schemas
Definition
  • frameworks for our knowledge about people, objects, events, and actions that allow us to organize and interpret information about our world
Term
Memory
 
 
Misattribution
Definition
  • attributing a memory to the wrong source, resulting in a false memory
Term
Memory
 
 
Misinformation Effect
Definition
  • incorporating misleading info into one's memory of an event
  • Loftus & Palmer - simulated car crash - used biased words - asked pple to describe accident
  • makes eyewitness accounts practically unreliable
Term
Memory
 
 
Recovered Memories
Definition
  • many stories of people remembering early traumatic events later in life, often as the result that intends to help them "uncover repressed memories"
  • are these memories real? or created by suggestion?
  • hard to say about any particular memory; certainly some are real
  • however it is actually easy to implant a memory into someone's mind
Term
 
 
 
Mental Images
Definition
  • object/image not actually there, must visualize it in our head
Term
ch. 6 Thinking & Intelligence
 
 
Fixation & Functional Fixedness
 Definition
  • fixation
    • the inability to create a new interpretation of a problem
  • functional fixedness
    • the inability to see that an object can have a function other than its typical one in solving a problem
    • An inability to “think outside the box” and see that objects can have functions other than their typical ones in solving problems
Term
Thinking & Intelligence
 
 
Mental Set
Definition
  • the tendency to use previously successful problem-solving strategies without considering others that are more appropriate for the current problem
Term
Thinking & Intelligence
 
 
 Insight
Definition
  • a new way to interpret a problem that immediately yields the solution
Term
Thinking & Intelligence
 
 
Algorithm
Definition
  • a step-by-step problem solving procedure that guarantees a correct answer to a problem
  • methodical, logical rules or procedures that gurantee solving a particular problem
  • very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a solution.  Computers use algorithms.
Term
Thinking & Intelligence
 
 
 
Heuristic
Definition
  • Simple thinking strategies that allow us to make judgments and solve probs efficiently.  Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms
  • Make it easier for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems
Term
Thinking & Intelligence
 
 
 Anchoring & Adjustment Heuristic
Definition
  • a heuristic for estimation problems in which one uses his or initial estimate as an anchor estimate and then adjusts the anchor up or down (often insufficiently)
Term
Thinking & Intelligence
 
 
 
Representative Heuristic
Definition
  • judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent or match particular prototype, thereby ignoring base rate information
Term
Thinking & Intelligence
 
 
Conjunction Fallacy
Definition
  • incorrectly judging the overlap of two uncertain events to be more probable than either of the two events
Term
Thinking & Intelligence
 
 
Gambler's Fallacy
Definition
  • incorrectly believing that a chance process is self-correcting in that an event that has not occurred for a while is more likely to occur
Term
Thinking & Intelligence
 
 
Availability Heuristic
Definition
  • judging the likelihood of an event based on how available examples of the event are in memory
  • which is more common?
    • words that start w/ 'K' or words that have 'k' as the third letter? - ans= K as third
Term
Thinking & Intelligence
 
 
Confirmation Bias
Definition
  • the tendency to seek evidence that confirms one's beliefs
Term
Language
 
 
Universals of Language: Arbitrariness
 
 
 
 Definition
  • no inherent connection btwn the symbols in a language and the meanings they convey
    • ex. dog, chien, perro, hund
Term
Language
 
 
Universals of Language: Displacement
Definition
  • language enables their speakers to talk about thins that aren't immediately present
    • ex. "yesterday, i went to IKEa over near Detroit"
Term
Language
 
 
Universals of Language: Generativity
 Definition
  • language allows us to generate an infinite number of utterances
  • we are not resigned to simply repeating utterances that we've heard before
  • even young kids use language in a generative way.
Term
Language
 
 
 Language's Positive Influence on Thinking
Definition
  • when a language provides words for objects or events, we can think about these objects more clearly and remember them
  • it is easier to think about 2 colors with 2 diff names than colors w/ the same name
Term
Language
 
 
Language's Negative Influence on Thinking
Definition
  • language influences how we think
  • can inhibit our ability to properly problem solve or think outside the box
Term

 

 

 

Insight Problem

Definition
  • insight involves a sudden novel realization of a solution to a problem, often experienced as an "aha" moment
  • Schooler, et al. - found that using language to talk thru a prob actually decreased participants performance on insight problems
  • suggests that verbalization may get in the way of intuitive nonverbal process
Term

 

 

 

Intelligence

Definition
  • "the global capacity of the individual to act purposefully to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment" ~David Wechsler
Term
Intelligence
 
 
Standardization
Definition
  • the proces that allows testscores to be interpreted by providing test norms
Term
Intelligence
 
 
 
Reaction Range
Definition
  • the genetically determined limits for an individual's intelligence
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