1. Are mean levels of traits stable across time?

2. Is there rank-order stability?

1. Twins Studies

2. Adoption Studies

3. Twin Adoption Studies

Genes matter!!!

Growing up together = less of a factor

Shared family environment = barely a factor

genetics + environment + experiences = psnality

40% + 5% + 45% = 100%

1. Consciousness

--> thoughts/images that are currently in awareness

2. Preconsciousness

-->ones that can easily be brought to consciousness

3. Unconscious

-->ones that are actively kept out of awareness

1. Id

2. Ego

3. Superego

- source of all motives, desires, and wishes

- present (and fully functional) at birth

- LIMBIC SYSTEM

- entirely conscious

- pleasure principle

- PRIMARY THINKING

- seat of reason, rationality, and logic

- NOT present at birth but emerges early in life

- PREFRONTAL CORTEX

- Almost all conscious or preconscious

- reality principle

- SECONDARY PROCESS THINKING

- ideals, goals, and "conscience"

- aims for perfection and socially accepted behaviors

- develops by the age of 4 or 5

- no specific region in the brain

STRONG = unyielding, rigid, dominant

WEAK = easily torn between conflicting demands, unsure, submissive

- The human ability to gain sexual pleasure from sources other than those that are "socially accepted"

- from birth to about age 5

- includes incestual and bisexual tendencies

- culminates in adult heterosexuality

- Birth to 18 months

- focused on oral pleasure (sucking)

- 18 months to 3 years

- focus on eliminating and retaining feces

- can result in anal retentive or messy person

- 3 to 6 years

- pleasure zone switches to the genitals

- boys develop sexual desire for mother

- Oedipus and Electra Complexes

- 6 years to Puberty

- most sexual desires repressed

- mostly play with children of same sex

- Puberty on...

- sexual urges once again awakened

- focus sexual desires on opposite sex

- goal is genital satisfaction

Infants have 1. Stranger Anxiety, and 2. Separation Anxiety from their primary caregiver. 

Stranger = emerges ~7 mos, ends by 18 months

Separation = peaks 12-16 mos, gone by 2-3 years

1. Occupation (profession)

2. Ideology (religious, political, behavioral)

3. Sexual (orientation and behavior)

When a subject reads a long lists of words to memorize, they are more likely to remember the first words than the last. 

1. Short term memory far less "crowded"

2. Fewer items at top of list = more time to process information

Perceived Behavior is an additive function of dispositional (D) and situational (S) causes.

Pb = f (D + S)

The FAE is the tendency to emphasize dispositional causes rather than situational ones.

--> we tend to be personality theorists.

- People do not always act in accordance with their attitudes

- Sometimes they are hypocritical

- CDT is concerned with how people cope with attitude-behavior discrepancies.

1. Change behavior

2. Change attitude

3. Add cognition

(People either paid $1 or $20 to lie)

People who got $1 felt better about lying. This is because they didn't have to justify the larger payout as the reason they lied. Dissonance theory states that smaller rewards produce greater liking.

It arises whenever people have to choose between 2 alternatives of near equal attractiveness.

1. Devaluing features

2. Overvaluing features

1. Cognitive (Stereotypes)

2. Behavioral (Discrimination)

3. Affective (Prejudiced Feelings)

1. Prejudice arises when groups realistically compete for scarce, tangible resources.

2. If there were enough resources to go around, Prejudice would die.

3. People are prejudiced because it makes them feel good about themselves to know that their group is better than another group.

Contact Hypothesis = bringing people together reduces prejudice

1. Equal status

2. Pleasant interactions

3. Supporting social norms

4. Cooperative independence

Aggression = voluntary behavior intended to harm another human being.

-MUST involve an action

-MUST be voluntary and intentional

-MUST be directed towards another person

1. Aggression is innate; simply a reaction to being "thwarted"

2. Aggression is learned, just like all other human behaviors.

Aggression is instinctive, and present at birth. 

Hydraulic Model = just like water, aggression cannot be compressed

Catharsis = acts of aggression reduce aggressive drives

1. Biological - neurotransmission or psychological structures.

2. Psychological - early childhood experiences

3. Sociocultural - environment, social status, current life circumstances

all 3 = Biopsychosocial Model

A psychiatric classification system used to diagnose over 350 mental disorders.

-being revised, new edition in 2013

Anxiety Disorder = a psychological disorder characterized by excessive and unrealistic fear and anxiety.

-most prevalent disorder in USA (17.6%)

-strong and irrational fear of a situation or object.

-can arise at any time, most common in childhood.

-depends on how many times the stimulus enters daily life.

-chronic state of diffuse anxiety that is not attached to a specific situation or object.

-onset = childhood and adolescence

(5% of people ages 15-45)

-sudden, unpredictable, intense feelings of anxiety (typically with unidentifiable stimulus)

-people often develop phobia of future attacks

-onset = adolescence

(3.5% of Americans)

-repetitive, unwelcome thoughts and obsessive actions

-onset = 20s

(2.5% of Americans)

Describe PTSD

(Post Traumatic Stress Disorder)

-severe anxiety disorder that arises following a traumatic life event (reliving the trauma in dreams, flashbacks, and fantasies)

-caused by rape, war, torture,etc...

-women have PTSD 2x as much as men do

Freud = occurs when unacceptable id impulses threaten to overwhelm the ego's defenses and enter into consciousness.

Biological = overactive autonomic nervous system, overactive neurotransmitter system involved in emotional responses, overactive right hemisphere (amygdala).

1. Likelihood of suicide

2. Interest defecit

3. Concentration defecit

4. Energy defecit

5. Psychomotor agitation/retardation

6. Guilt, worthlessness, regret

7. Appetite change

8. Sleep

SPICEGAS!!!!!

Major Depression = in intense and debilitating depressed state that impairs functioning.

Dysthymia = a less intense, less debilitating but more ongoing dysphoria.

10%

(15% will experience depression episode at some point in their lives)

Emotional = sadness, hopelessness, anxiety

Cognitive = negative beliefs about you and future

Motivational = loss of interest, lack of drive

Somatic = loss of energy, weight change, sleep disturbance

1. Clinical and Counseling Psychologists

2. Psychiatrists

3. Counselors

1. Systematic Desensitization

2. Aversion Therapies

3. Behavior Modification

System for strengthening desired behaviors through the application of positive reinforcement.

example = stickers for kids

1. Behavioral / Learning

2. Biological

3. Cognitive

4. Humanistic

5. Psychodynamic 

1. Insight

2. Free Association

3. Resistance

4. Dreams

5. Transference

The recollected dream (it's actual content)

-this is never taken literally, it's always a representation of a disguised wish

1. Unconditional Positive Regard

2. Empathy

3. Genuineness

Rogers = you're good

Humanistic = you're not so terrible

1. Catastrophic Events

2. Major Life Events

3. Microstressors

Emotional = depression, anxiety, PTSD

Cognitive = difficulty concentrating

Behavioral = poor health habits

Physiological = Sympathetic Nervous System (increased heart rate) and Somatization (ulcers)

1. Catecholamine

2. Cortisol

-Fight or Flight mostly men

-Tend and Befriend = WOMEN

-hormone Oxytocin may explain difference

1. Problem-Focused = active efforts to avoid or alter stress-provoking events.

2. Emotion-Focused = efforts to reduce impact of stress-provoking events.

3. Stress Management = efforts to minimize impact of stress on well being.