-psychologist; discovered red blood cells, used telescope

-tested Descartes animal spirit theory, decapitated animals have coordinated muscle responses (usually running)

-removed muscles from the body, kept alive and could stimulate them

-discovered no mass is added to muscles while contracting

-even separated muscles move continuosly and separately

Gottfried Leibniz

1646-1716

-Rationalistic POV, co-invented calculus

-mind/body position (dualist)

-Monade: fundamental elevement of EVERYTHING mental and physical (infinite in #, created by god and independent of each other)

-Psycholphysical Parallelism: mental/physical interaction; two clocks set at the same time and run in parallel forever, correlated, one does not cause the other

-sensation and perception: we have a perception if the intensity of the stimulus is great enough (can we determine how great it needs to be), perception is the simple mental experience and sensation is the more complex mental experience (apperception)

-can evaluate unconcious mental events

-led to 1st scientific psychology; psychophysics

Thomas Hobbes

1588-1678

-founder of modern Empiricism; famous for work on Political Theory : form of government given human nature

-"leviathen"-means big, what kind of government is best

-if distinct and clear then he accepted it as true (did not believe in innate ideas but rather experience)

-advocated science

-heathism: humans want to satisfy the self

-mental physics: study the mind as a physical thing

John Locke

1632-1704

-more refined empiricism than Hobbes (more skeptical)

-wrote an Essay Concerning Human Understanding: his most famous work, source of knowledge; are there things we can't understand/know?

-before experience we have nothing (Aristotle) "Tabula Rasa"

-2 types of experience: Sensation and Reflection, giong back thru previous sensations by reflection allows us to come upon complex notions

-simple ideas and complex ideas

-limit of understanding is experience (is this always reliable?)

-from Galileo: Primany (motion, weight, #s) and Secondary (color, temp, taste) qualities

-Primany qualities are inherent, objective and have nothing to do with us

-Secondary qualities require a sensation to experience

-chance and natural associations

George Berkeley

1685-1753

-Empiricist, HAVE to have the experience to know something as true

-Solipsist- if you don't have the experience then you can't say it's true

-"to be is to be perceived" (god is the infinite perceiver)

-believed if took away secondary qualities then the object is gone

-wrote: An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision, commitment to empirisicm

-depth perception: the direct experience we have when viewing an object at a distance is its smaller, but we know from experience that it doesnt mean that the object is smaller

-all subjective experiences

David Hume

1711-1776

-political theorist, influential to founding fathers

-empiricist, became a solipsist

-called into question the validity of cause and effect and the notion of the mind

-Impression: when we are directly experiencing something

-after the impression we are left with less detailed ideas

-the concept of "mind" is hypothetical; with cause and effect we are assuming the two things are linked (also hypothetical)- so can't claim either as true

David Hartley

1705-1759

-physician; founder of Associationism

-Wrote Observations on Man: outlines associationistic POV, empirical POV

-theory derived from physics

-vibrations-sensations going on at same time as increased movements with in the body system, diminish after sensation stops and we are left with Vibratiuncles

-eventually these things become linked (associated)

-Contiguity:2 types: Synchronous Contiguity:occur at same time or same place and Successive Contiguity: closely spaced in time or location (associationism)

-every sense has a corresponding idea

James Mill

1773-1836

-mind complex, but associations simple so lets focus on that

-mind is building blocks derived from sensation

-Mental Compounding: complex things made up of simple things

-can be broken doen and explored thru simple ideas

John Stuart Mill

1806-1873

-Son of James Mill, empiricist

-one of the smartest ppl ever (IQ 180+)

-associationistic POV but more complex than father's

-Mental Chemistry

-two simple ideas put together by associationism is not a simple addition of the two ideas and it can have unpredictable results

Immanual Kant

1724-1804

-use rational AND empirical ways to find truth (neither is sufficient alone)

-wrote a theor on causal evenst and earthquakes that anticipated the theory of plate tectonics

-how can you deny the mind? amazed byt this, tried to show Hume inccorect

-Wrote the Critique of Pure Reason: mind, cause and effect, space and time all exist, we know they exist because the mind tells us they do

-developed Catagories of Organization (born w/ 12)

-theorized about the Nature of Reality in general, this "perfect truth" is actually unobtainable (Noumenal Reality)

-the only reality we can know is Phenomenal Reality-which is defined by the individual and experience

1: Synthetic knowledge-unrelated things brought together from experience (i.e her shirt is green, but shirt and green have no prior relationship)

-results in a Posteriori, you cannot reason your way to it, you experience it

2: Analytic Knowledge-breaking down something into components independent of experience, rationally derived

-occurs a priori

3: Synthetic a Priori-experience and rationalism; how we derive truth all the time

-determined a priori

-2 step process: things with in themselves/environment and actions of these catagories of organiazation

Sir Charles Bell

1774-1842

-most famous in our book; 3 discoveries (movement control)

-reciprocal innercation between flexor and extensor muscles (both muscles are activated from the NS to make movements)

-sensory physiology: discovered new sense-muslce sense (not concious)

-work @ spinal cord level, dorsal roots (sensory) and ventral roots (motor); info enters thru dorsal roots and is sent out thru ventral roots

-Bell-Magendie Law: dorsal roots (posterior)=sensory and ventral roots (anterior)=motor

-shows an antamical distinction between senses and movement control

-physically separated, so thought some just control movement and some just control sensation - so this must also happen in the brain

Franz Joseph Gall

1758-1828

-discussed mind in a physical way; specialized in anatomy (especially neuroanatomy)

-noticed a correlation between people's looks and personality traits

-Wrote Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System

-Cranioscopy: determined mental traits by examining the skulls surface

-suggested 4 things: mind is partitioned into discrete abilities (friendship, language, etc), each of these abilities is controlled by a particular part of the brain (highly localized), more of an ability = more tissue in that area, and the surface of the skull conforms to the surface of the brain (thus allowing you to do cranioscopies)

-2 faculties of the mind: affective faculties (emotion, mental attributes) and intellectual faculties (language, estimation of time, etc)

-intellectual faculties would be located in the front of the skull ("high brow"=smarter)

-was eventually joined by Johann Spurzheim

Johann Spurzheim

1776-1832

-Phrenology (more dev form of cranioscopy)

-people could pay to have their skulls examined (eventually was discredited)

-caused a lot of research in Neuroanatomy and neurophysiology

(worked with Gall, was more liked than Gall)

-took referrals for particularly bad patients

-Broca's Aphasia: can read and understand but cannot speak, upon doing an autopsy found that there was obvious damage w the anatomy of the brain

-Broca's Area: frontal lobe, left side; if destroyed caused aphasia

-a major human trait that IS localized (supports phrenology)

Phineas Gage

1823-1860

-had a rod shot through his skull, lost his eye, did frontal lobe damage, but survived

-effected his personality: still had memory, was intelligent and could speak but became unreliable, verbally abusive and unpredictable

-another human quality seemed to be highly localized in the frontal lobe

-specialization of localization in personality begins

Pierre Flourens

1774-1867

-attacked phrenology, interested in localization of FUNCTION

-experimented on animals, did lesion studies; the more cortical tissue removed the more impairment the animal suffered, did not matter where the tissue was taked from but how much was taken

-organized process that works together rather than localized

-entire brain is used for everything, very influential

-if the functions were localized, one function would be completely lost due to the lesions

-discovered (jointly) and mapped the Primary Motor Cortex (located in the frontal lobe, very systematic)

-stimulated the brain electrically and discovered that the patient twitched at different places when stimulated different places (high localization of function)

-Nervous System uses electrical energy (no hollow nerves)

-created 1st portable electric device: Static Electricity Generator

-could crank to build up charge (very strong) and then touch something to discharge it

-created Leyden Jars to store electricity (for months) until discharge- worked like a battery

-used Leyden Jars

-Galvani: rediscoverd that skates and rays are able to generate electricity

-Volta: discovered electric eel-very poweful, could knock you down

-Animal Electricity important

-both used frog legs, touched the spine with electrical charge and the leg twitched

Galvani: if could stimulate the muscles with electricity, then they must use electricity normally (he was RIGHT)

-Galvani created the first battery with frog legs strong together, the more legs the stronger the charge (organic)

-Volta: created the 1st inorganiz battery (used today) called the Voltaic Pile; discs of alternating metals stacked and submerged in brine and vinegar

-1st physiologist, interested in sensation, movement and electricity

-confirmed the fact that the Nervous System uses electricity

-wrote 8 volumes of all he knows on physiology: Handbooko of Human Physiology

-Sensory Specificity: what differentiates the sensory systems (hear w ears, see w eyes etc)

-Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies

-should consider spiritualist POVs because all can't be explained materialistically

-his students rejected this (spirtualistic) and in response wrote The Materialist Manifesto and signed it in their own blood

-Muller's student

-drafted the Manifesto to demonstrate that only physical principles are used

-wrote the 1st textbook on the electrical aspect of physiology

-took over Muller's professorship

-one of the founding fathers of modern physics

-became physician bc state paid him too, had to join army in return (but really interested in physics)

-experimented with mice in the army: used a mathematical equation to see how many calories they used when exercising and reseting - found it to be highly correlated with calorie intake : Law of Conservation Of Energy

-other scientists petitioned for his release from the army

-researched vision physiology, invented the opthalmoscope (used today), could look into the eye in great detail and see for the 1st time the fovia, retina and lens

-adapted the Chronograph (to the Myograph) to measure the speed of electrical signals (thought this was impossible, but he did it), slower than sound (alot slower than they thought)

-measurable time difference between stimulation and muscle contraction

-wrote The Handbook of Opticle Physiology

-studied color vision, can get any color from 3 colors: red, green, blue (thomas young previoulsy discoved this)

-we have 3 receptios, a ratio of firing of receptors gives us the great variety of colors we can see

-Young-Helmholtz Theory or Trichromatic Theory

-wrote On the Sensations of Tone, explained sound by waves; volume, pitch, timbre

-resonance-vibrations; highly flexible things resonate more to bass and less flexible things resonate more to treble

-found that in the cochlea the basilar membrane is shaped like a trapazoid (wider on one end than the other), and is more flexible at the wider end (resonate bass) and less flexible on the narrow end (resonate treble) and accounts for everything in between

-most famous physiologist in the world

Ewald Hering

-used perceptual experiences to look at color vision

-after image: colors seen stain cones and inhibit the color, then the opposite color over compensates when looking at white paper

-3 kinds of receptors operating in Opponent Proccess Theory: red/green, white/black, and yellow/blue

Gustav Theodor Fechner

1801-1887

-University of Leipzig

-1st experimental pyshcology: Psychophysics

-did research on Hering's Opponent Proccess Theory (vision)

-damamged own eyes by looking into sun, became depressed, quit job, POV changed from Materialist to Vitalistic (spiritualistic), became concerned with mental life

-"Day/Night View of the World": day- encouraging, night-demeaning (material)

-wrote under the penname of Dr. Mises, made fun of medicine

-Double Aspect theory: mind/body is just two ways to look at the same thing

-ideas based on professor Weber, the greater the stimulus the greater the change needed to be able to tell

-expressed Webers findings: change in R/R=K (Webers Law)

-modified bc JND is on an interval scale : s=k(logR)(Fechner's Law)

-mental is directly equivalent to the physical

-could create graphs for the first time

-Elements Of Pyschophysics: absolute and differential thresholds- can systematically evaulate w : Method of Limits (ascending/descending orders), Method of Constant Stimuli (random stimulus), and the Method of Adjustment/Average Error (participant adjusts stimulus)

-also founded Experiments Aesthetics: there are qualitfiable attributes that contribute to aesthetics (can # a mental experience): Golden Section (3x5 rectangle seen over and over in architecture and life)

-said there are more than 5 senses

-did research on muscle sense w weights and determined the JND

-Two-Point Tactile: our ability to detect two oints on the skin, how far apart do those points need to be?- differs for different body parts

-suggested Sensory Circles

-showed a lawful relationship between physical and mental world

-influenced Fechner greatly

-contributions to the Theory of Sensory Perception

-marks the first time he called for an explicitly experimental approach to basic psychological functions

-lectures on Human and Animal Psychology

-Principles of Physiological Pyschology- book that established experimental psychology

-Volkerpsycholgie- ten volumes of culture psychology

-Philosophical Studies-1st journal of psychology

-On memory- research on verbal learning

-the Journal of Pyschology and Physiology of the Sense Organs: journal for experimenta psyc

-Functions of the Brain

-scottish neurologist

-included a map of a monkey's brain