• Feeling (subjective experience)
• Behaviour
• Physiology

• Amygdala: implicit learning
• Hippocampus: explicit learning
• (Also communication between the two)

• Implicit: learning without conscious awareness
• Explicit: learning with conscious awareness

• Low road pathway
• High road pathway

• Thalamus to the amygdala signalling fear response
• Fast, priming responses that allow for rapid behavioural response
• Preparatory
• Cannot differentiate between stimuli

• Thalamus --> Cortex --> Amygdala
• Confirms preparatory signal from the low road that a stimulus is threatening
• Slow (simultaneous to low road, but occurs slower)
• Involves conscious awareness and context

• Occurs when you see the conditioned response from a pairing of a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus

• Patient S.P.: Bilateral amygdala damage
• Normal startle responses, but unable to acquire fear conditioning (from pairing CS to UR)
• Showed explicit awareness of the conditioned paradigm, but no behavioural or physiological response to a CS
• Implication: amygdala not necessary for understanding the pairing between an US and CS, but is necessary for eliciting a conditioned response
• Implicit emotional learning

• Implicit emotional learning without explicit emotional learning
• Show conditioned response after pairing an unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned stimulus
• No conscious awareness of the association between the US and CS
• Double dissociation with amygdalar lesions

• Fear response toward a stimulus caused by knowledge and vicarious experience, but not through direct experience

• Amygdala
• Again, individuals have explicit knowledge that a stimulus will be threatening, but show no behavioural or physiological response when the stimulus is presented

• "In some trials, a blue square stimulus will be paired with a shock"
• Participant expects an aversive stimulus in a particular condition

• Amygdala & hippocampus
• Amygdala modulates hippocampal consolidation of memories
• Emotional tagging, salience
• Determines what you remember

• Rats learn Morris water maze
• Better retention when rat is aroused immediately after training
• No change in retention in rats with amygdalar lesions
• (i.e., baseline intact, no effect of arousal)
• Implications:
• Amygdala enhances retention (via consolidation) but not initial encoding
• Amygdalar activation may decrease forgetting

• Enhances memory acquisition at moderate arousal levels
• High and low arousal impair memory via glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus

• PTSD

• Re-experiencing of the event via intrusive memories, flashbacks, etc.
• Anxiety and fear associated with flashbacks
• Sensitivity to stimuli that are (loosely) associated with the traumatic event

• Disorder of memory and fear systems; i.e., maladaptive connection between hippocampus (memory) and amygdala (fear response)
• Generalization of CS, such that fear response is activated by less specific stimuli
• Recurrance of fearful memories

• Client is asked to recall traumatic memory
• During this period of reconsolidation, a shock is administered
• After repeated pairings, participant comes to associate the memory with the shock
• Once fear conditioning has taken place, clinician stops administering shocks
• i.e., extinction of the fear conditioning that has replaced previous associations

• OFC
• Connected to emotion areas (e.g., amygdala)

• Lack of association (emotional memory) between inappropriate behaviour and the emotional consequence

• Physiological changes in arousal

• Memories of past actions are tagged with emotions and somatic markers. These provide feedback that predicts whether we will engage in a behaviour again
• OFC involved in the decision by evaluating outcomes

• Iowa gambling task
• "Bad decks" have larger magnitude gains but yield net losses

• Continue to choose cards from decks that deal greater loss
• Implication: OFC involved in recognizing the changing patterns of reward and punishment

• Negative affect resulting from making a voluntary choice that had better alternatives

• OFC
• Anticipation and experience of regret
• OFC-damaged patients feel happy/sad in response to wins/losses, but do not experience regret when they are personally accountable for a poor decision

• Because we experience regret, we learn to be risk averse (i.e., make decisions that avoid risk)

Processes that influence...

• Type of emotion experienced
• Subjective emotional experience
• When emotions will be experienced
• Expression of emotion

• Reappraisal
• Suppression

• Regulating the input of an emotional experience
• Alleviates negative affect
• Reduces behavioural responses to the emotion
• Minimal physiological toll
• Healthy

• Regulating the output of an emotional experience
• No effect on the emotional experience
• Increases sympathetic system's stress response
• Unhealthy

• "Emotional recovery"
• Increased resting activity in the left PFC
• Correlates with voluntary suppression of negative affect
• Correlates with decreased startle response (i.e., duration of of emotional response)
• No correlation with emotional reactivity
• Implications: decreased resting activity of left PFC predicts recovery from an emotion, but not reactivity to it

• "Emotional recovery"
• Different patterns of activity are apparent for different cognitive reappraisal goals (e.g., focusing on yourself vs. the situation)
• Role of the amygdala (increase in activity) is to match reappraisal goals and behaviour

• Regulates goals of the PFC
• Match regulation/reappraisal goals and behaviour
• Decrease activity when goal is to decrease emotional experience, vice versa
• Provides affective flexibility

• Acquiring information through experience
• Represented through change in behaviour

• Application of learning that facilitates the use of prior experience

• Basal ganglia

1. Encoding
2. Storage
3. Retrieval

• Acquisition (i.e., learning)
• Consolidation (i.e., memory stabilization)

• Permanent record of learning is housed

• Accessing and utilization of stored information

• Creation of new explicit memories
• Patient H.M.

• Sensory memory
• Working memory
• Short-term memory
• Long-term memory

• Capacity
• Duration
• Encoding

• Neural traces of sensory information
• Retain lots of information, but short-lived trace

• Iconic: 300-500 ms
• Echoic: up to 10 sec

• Neural activation in response to unexpected stimulus
• EEG or MEG

• Participants listened to "oddball sequences" of frequent "standard" sounds and the rare "deviant" sound
• EEG activation shows mismatched field when there is less than a 9 second interval between the standard and deviant stimulus

• 7 +/- 2 items
• Seconds to minutes

• Serial information processing
• 3 hierarchical nodes:
1. Sensory register
2. Short-term storage
3. Long-term storage
• Information is lost from STM if it is not attended to 

[image]

• Patient K.F.
• Impaired digit span but intact LTM
• Implication: dissociation between STM and LTM suggests that they are not arranged in hierarchical nodes

• Manipulation of information from sensory, short-term, or long-term memory
• Maintenance of incoming information
• Limited capacity

• Working memory is organized into a central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer

[image]

• Control centre that...
• Coordinates interactions
• Shifts/divides attention
• Prevents errors
• Rehearses information
• Limited capacity
• Flexible

• Storing and processing verbal information and speech
• Divided into two parts: phonological store and subvocal rehearsal mechanisms

• Part of the phonological loop
• Verbal information
• Storage of word traces (i.e., articulatory processing)
• Rapid decay

• Part of the phonological loop
• Helps prevent decay of information from WM by refreshing information

• Storing and processing visual information, including...
• Spatial orientation
• Colour
• Shape
• Size
• Orientation

• Irrelevant speech effect: impaired recall of numbers or words (auditory or visual) when they are paired with speech
• Suggests verbal component regardless of modality

• Participants did a dual task paradigm, in which they had to perform two tasks at the same time
• Worse performance when the two tasks required the same modality (i.e., verbal or visuospatial)
• No change in performance (compared with doing a single task) when tasks were in different modalities

• Guides interaction with long-term memory 
• Also interaction with semantic information
• Integration of information from various domains of perception

• Explicit (also called declarative)
• Episodic
• Semantic
• Implicit
• Procedural
• Perceptual representation system (e.g., priming)
• Classical conditioning
• Nonassociative learning (e.g., habituation, sensitization)

• Amygdala
• Hippocampus
• Parahippocampal cortex
• Entorhinal cortex
• Perirhinal cortex

• MTL almost entirely removed
• Severe anterograde amnesia
• Some retrograde amnesia
• Intact STM (dissociation)

• MTL crucial in the formation of long-term memories
• MTL not involved in short-term memory or storage of memories

• Temporary amnesia following acute emotional or physical stress
• Related to damage of the hippocampus

• Recollection
• Familiarity

• Recollection: relies on episodic memory of when/where the target was seen before.

• Familiarity: semantic memory that a target has been seen before, but without memory of time/place

• Participants studied set of words. The words were presented with certain physical charactertistics (e.g., in red or green text)
• Double dissociation between recollection and familiarity representations
• Hippocampus involved in coding context (i.e., recollection)
• Left perirhinal cortex involved in coding target items (familiarity)

• Hippocampus
• Encodes contextual information to aid later recollection

• Left perirhinal cortex
• Item-based encoding (specific to target itself) to aid later familiarity judgments

• Yes
• Retrieval appears to be (partially) a reactivation of the areas that were involved in encoding
• Evidence: the same areas are activated when encoding and retrieving modality-specific information
• Previous study also holds for familiarity-based and retrieval-based encoding

• Different regions of the MTL represent different types of information
• Perirhinal cortex involved in item memory
• Parahippocampal cortex involved in contextual memory
• Hippocampus binds "what" (item) and "where" (context) information
• Relational memory

• Frontal cortex
• Various regions
• e.g., Broca's area
• Parietal cortex
• Cingulate cortex
• Retrosplenial
• Posterior cingulate cortex
• Anterior temporal system
• Posterior medial system

• Model of memory retrieval and its association with cognitive processes
• Anterior temporal system (AT) and posterior medial system (PM)
• Each system contributes to a different aspect of memory by different information from an experience

• Involved in the early stages of memory processing (encoding & retrieval)
• Target specific (e.g., person)
• Existing semantic concepts (e.g., person's name)
• Associated relevance and salient information (e.g., details)

• Supports recollection-based memory (i.e., representations of context and information)
• Later stages of memory processing

• Double dissociation
  

Anterior temporal

• Semantic dementia (impaired semantic memory)

Posterior medial

• Alzheimer's disease (impaired episodic memory)

• Process in which immediate memories are transfomed into long-term memories
• Two types:
• Rapid, initial consolidation
• Slower, but permanent consolidation
• (After ECT, tend to lose memories that have only undergone the initial rapid consolidation)

• Standard consolidation theory
• Multiple trace theory

• Newly encoded information is retained in the hippocampus for initial, temporary storage
• Consolidation is the result of connections that form between the hippocampus and cortical areas
• Transfer of information (no permanent housing in hippocampus)
• Assumes similar processes for semantic and episodic information

• Research has demonstrated that consolidation for semantic and episodic information involves different processes
• Some patients have hippocampal damage but intact long-term memory

• Memory reactivation leads to multiple traces in the hippocampus, which are connected to the cortex
• Extension of standard consolidation theory that accounts for differences in episodic and semantic memories
• Semantic information is fully transferred to the cortex
• Episodic information relies on hippocampal-cortical connections
• Hippocampus relied on for memory of contextual information

• Reactivation of memories during slow wave sleep solidifies memories (consolidation) and improves recall
• Participants learned card locations while being exposed to an odour. Participants who were exposed to the odour while sleeping after the task had better memory of the card locations.
• Participants who were exposed to the odour during while awake (but before learning a second set) had impaired recall on the original set.
• This suggests that reactivation during wakefulness updates memories with related information

• Dorsal: top of the brain; also called superior.
• Ventral: bottom of the brain; also called inferior.
• Anterior: front of the brain; also called rostral.
• Posterior: back of the brain; also called caudal.
• Rostral: closer to the brain; or front of the brain.
• Caudal: closer to the spinal cord; or back of the brain.
• Sagital: plane of brain slices in which you cut from front to back.
• Coronal: place of brain slices in which you cut horizontally or separate the front from the back.
• Medial: closer to the middle.
• Lateral: closer to the outside.

[image]

• Generally: left hemisphere
• Broca's area (in left insular cortex)
• Primary auditory cortex (in superior temporal gyrus)
• Auditory association cortex (in superior temporal gyrus)
• Wernicke's area (in posterior superior temporal gyrus)
• Angular gyrus
• Suppramarginal gyrus
• M1 speech centre

[image]

• Left insular cortex

• Superior temporal gyrus

• Posterior superior temporal gyrus

• Superior temporal sulcus
• Prosody
• Phonological information
• PFC, middle temporal gyrus, PCC
• Metaphorical meaning

• Deficit in language comprehension or production
• Usually due to left hemisphere damage

• Difficulty controlling the muscles used in speech

• Impairment in motor planning and programming of speech articulation
• Occurs when there is left hemisphere brain damage

• i.e., Wernicke's aphasia
• Difficulty finding words

• Defict lies in production of speech and comprehension of syntax

• Loss of word meaning with retained comprehension of syntactic meaning

• Deficits in speech comprehension
• Non-sensical speech

• Arcuate fasciculus

• Sensory information
• Motor information

• Only sometimes
• Damage to Wernicke's area and arcuate fasciculus are predictive

• As indicated last flashcard:
• Wernicke's area
• Arcuate fasciculus

• Phoneme
• Morpheme
• Semantic
• Syntactic
• Discourse

• Mental representation of information about words

• (These occur serially)
• Lexical access: word form representations regarding semantics and syntactics
• Lexical selection: identify the word from the mental lexicon that matches the target word
• Lexical integration: integration of words into sentences and context; understanding

1. Co-occurance of words primes each other
2. Semantic features/properties are represented
3. Semantic network model
• Most supported

• Collins & Loftus
• Word meanings are represented in conceptual nodes that are connected to each other
• Model is based on the association between words

• Dyslexia
• Semantic paraphasia

• Difficulty with visual recognition of words

• Impaired reading of words, non-words, and unknown words

• Substitution of a word that is similar in meaning
• Occurs in Wernicke's aphasia

• Living vs. man-made

• Lateral fusiform gyrus
• Superior temporal sulcus

• Medial fusiform gyrus
• Left middle temporal gyrus

• At the specific level (i.e., naming the target), better representation (via activation) of non-living objects because they have fewer features
• At the domain level (i.e., stating whether living or non-living), no difference in representation

• Anterior temporal lobe

• Anterior temporal lobe

• Posterior temporal lobe

• Spoken word
• Written word

• Prosody
• Word boundaries

• Rhythm, stress, intonation

• Emphasis on word syllables signals where the word begins/ends

• Superior temporal lobe (both hemispheres)
• Primary auditory cortex
• Auditory association areas

• Difficulty recognizing speech sounds but not other sounds
• Caused by bilaterial lesions of the superior temporal lobe

• Non-specific
• Ascending system (see next)

• As you move away from A1, specificity (for speech sounds vs. written word) increases

• Superior anterior gyrus
• Superior temporal gyrus
• Superior temporal sulcus

• These specifically relate to phonological information

• McClelland and Rumelhart
• 3 levels of representation occurring in parallel
• Features of letters & words
• Letters of words
• Representation of words

• Word superiority effect: better recognition of letters that are presented in words
• Because of the model's top-down processing, word representation can affect feature representation

• Occipitotemporal cortex

• Lesions cause pure alexia (inability to read words)

• Both at lower-level representations (e.g., sensory input, features) and higher-level (e.g., context)

• Semantics + syntax

• These posit when sentence context influences our representation of word meaning
• Models differ in the relationship between low-level representations and high-level

• Modular models
• Interactive models
• Hybrid models

• Processing between sensory and contextual representations is largely independent
• Bottom-up processing that requires sensory information of each word be processed before context
• Little interaction between modules

• Integration of sensory and contextual representations
• At word level, there is activation of the word and related words, and inhibition of unrelated words
• Don't need sensory information to get contextual information
• Context can influence word recognition before sensory information is available (from activation/inhibition)
• Bottom-up and top-down

• Word selection can be influenced by sensory and contextual information
• Combination of modular and interactive models
• For an ambiguous word, most frequent word is tried first before all possibilities are exhausted
• Context reduces the candidates for word possibilites

• Participants did lexical decision task, in which they listened to a phrase and make lexical decisions (word or nonword) based on visually-presented words at the same time
• Faster to identify targets related to the spoken sentence as being words, regardless of whether the final word in the sentence had been spoken or not
• Supports an interactive or hybrid model
• Even though sometimes the final word had not been spoken, still showed decreased latency for related words
• Did not need sensory processing to discern context

• Application of grammatical rules to analyze and comprehend whole structures
• Important for higher-order representations
• e.g., you can comprehend a sentence that has no semantic meaning as long as it follows syntactic rules

• P600 in parietal cortex (i.e., syntactic positive shift)
• Left anterior negativity (LAN) in the frontal cortex

• P600 also called syntactic positive shift
• Occurs when hear/read syntactic errors or a semantic violation

• N400 in parietal cortex
• Occurs whether reading or hearing semantic errors

• Left hemisphere dependent
• Same distinction between semantic and syntactic processing
• Deficits similar to Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia
• Anterior brain damage (Broca's) causes impaired syntactic hand movements
• Posterior brain damage (Wernicke's) causes nonsensical--but fluent--signing
• Implication: neural organization of language is modality-independent (e.g., speaking, reading, signing)

Dorsal pathways: projections from Broca's area to premotor cortex (posterior)

• Speech perception
• Speech formation

Ventral pathways: semantic meaning

• Storage of word representations
• Retrieval of word representations

• Integration of semantic, syntactic, phonological processing
• Speech perception

• Broca's area
• Premotor cortex

• Medial temporal gyrus
• Anterior superior temporal gyrus

• Anterior superior temporal gyrus
• Posterior superior temporal gyrus
• Superior temporal sulcus

• Levelt's model
• Dell model
• (Differ on how semantic, syntactic, and phonological information are combined for speech production)

• Modular model
• Serial processing
• Macroplanning: plan what to say
• Microplanning: choose words and grammar to execute plan

1. Conceptualization of what you want to say
• Representations are activated
2. Syntactic information is represented
3. Word forms and associated syntactic adjustments (e.g., making word plural) are activated
• Selection of phonemes to use
• (Tip of the tongue)
4. Articulation and speech production

• Inability to name objects
• Difficulty finding words
• Intact ability to say words (able to repeat)
• Based on Levelt's model, deficit at word form level

• Mixing up phonemes
• Not to be confused with tip of the tongue
• Evidence that we don't plan one word at a time

• "Dell model of spreading activation"
• Bidirectional spreading activation between nodes (e.g., semantic, syntactic, phoenetic)
• Feedback from phonological activation of semantic and syntactic properties, which enhances them
• Interactionist (as opposed to modular)

• 3 distinct waves of activity in Broca's area: word recognition, grammar, phonological
• Linguistic abilities are temporally and spatially distinct in Broca's area
• Serial process (i.e., in line with Levelt's model)

• Identify goals and how to achieve them
• Collection of brain mechanisms that reflect short-term and long-term goals
• Allows flexible and adaptive behaviour
• Reliant on executive functioning

• Stimulus-response-outcome

• Behavioural responses are produced to achieve a goal
• S-R-O 
• Outcome driven, response also emphasized

• Automatic responses are produced regardless of outcome
• S-R-O
• Stimulus driven

• WM
• Executive functioning

• Manipulate the contents of working memory (with regard to goal-directed behaviour)
• Planning
• Task management
• Attention
• Monitoring

• Regions in the PFC
• Lateral prefrontal
• Frontal pole
• Medial frontal

• Unilateral lesions--small deficits to WM and in perseveration
• Bilateral lesions--severe deficit in goal-directed behaviour and motivation

• Sustained activity in PFC during delay period (without stimuli)

• Delayed response task
• Need to hold target location in WM
• Neurons in lateral PFC show sustained activity during delay phase (between stimulus presentation and responding)
• Only when response is goal-directed

• Sustained PFC activity
• Draws resources from memory

• Goal-directed
• Maintain and manipulate goals

• Goal-directed
• Representation and integration of details (e.g., overarching goals, memories)

• Value
• Effort
• Cost
• Payoff
• Context
• Preference

• OFC: payoff
• Striatum: effort
• PFC: reward probability
• dorsolateral PFC: restraint

• Dopaminergic pathway
• Projects from VTA
• Reinforcement

• Rats will make a response that stimulates D1 receptors (via optogenetics) in the direct pathway
• Rats avoid stimulating D2 pathway

• Reinforcement
• Experience of reward
• Expectancy

• Difference between obtained reward and expected reward
• Represented by DA activity

• Obtained reward is greater than expected reward
• More DA activity
• Extinguishes once reward comes to be expected
• e.g., monkeys getting juice for a response

• Obtained reward is less than expected reward
• Decreased DA activitt

• Learning
• Positive prediction errors reflect classical conditioning
• Once association (S-R-O) has been learned, no prediction error
• Maintaining behaviour
• Negative prediction errors reflect extinction learning

• Lateral habenula
• Increased activity with a negative prediction
• Indirect projections to DA neurons in substantia nigra inhibit DA activity

• At the basal ganglia (esp. striatum)
• Strengthens excitatory direct pathway (D1)
• Strengthens inhibitory indirect pathway (D2), which disinhibits corticostriatal pathway
• Promotes desired behaviour

• At the basal ganglia (esp. striatum)
• Weakens excitatory direct pathway (D1)
• Weakens inhibitory indirect pathway (D2), which inhibits corticostriatal pathway
• Decreases a behaviour

• Processes that allow us to manipulate the contents of working memory

• Goal planning: includes selection of subtasks
• Task management: multitasking
• Attention and selection: updating WM as subtasks change
• Monitoring: error monitoring and correcting

• Switching tasks in response to change in goals

• Lateral PFC represents the goals
• Top-down process to other structures

• Lesions lead to deficits in decision making
• Perseveration
• Inability to see big picture
• Imaging studies show that it amplifies task-relevant information and suppresses task-irrelevant information

• PFC amplifies task-relevant information but does not suppress task-irrelevant information
• Single dissociation

• Medial frontal cortex, ACC in particular

1. Top of attentional control hierarchy
2. Error detection
3. Conflict monitoring

• Goal monitoring is foremost an attentional control process
• Medial frontal cortex supervises attentional control
• Increased activity when planning, errors, or responding
• No proof or explanatory utility

• Medial frontal cortex activity represents error and monitors performance (error-related negativity)
• But doesn't explain how you know you've made a mistake

• Integrates other theories on goal monitoring
• Medial frontal cortex monitors current level of conflict--activation represents conflict
• Conflict = number of choices; reflects task difficulty
• Interacts with PFC
• Allocates more attention when there is conflict

• PFC: planning
• ACC (in medial frontal): error/conflict monitoring
• Interaction between systems as a cognitive control network

• At any given time, we can consciously choose to do one of many things
• "Can" meaning that the choice is free from all restraints, including the laws of physics
• See next point also
• Choice (not properties of physical matter) determines which alternative is selected

• Main argument against free will
• Each state of the brain (e.g., cognition, behaviour) is governed by physics
• Brain is organic and physical and must operate under the laws of physics

• Libet 
• Participants watched moving clock, moved whenever, and noted the time on the clock when they decided to move
• Readiness potential ERP in M1 and motor association areas precedes conscious intention

• Consciousness is a phenomenologically subjective experience
• Any relationship between physics and consciousness that we haven't detected could amplify and be the basis of free will

• Can never prove definitively that it does not exist
• Libet and others have provided evidence against
• Unlikely violation of physics
• Still, brain is a causal factor in behaviour--there is "approximately" no free will

• Cognitive processes underlying socially-appropriate goals and behaviours
• Influenced by self-referential processing and social knowledge
• Involves emotion, decision making, motivation

• Thinking about others
• Judgments
• Rules and morals

• Perceptual representation of stimuli and their features

• Dorsolateral PFC
• Ventrolateral PFC
• Ventromedial PFC

• OFC
• Amygdala
• Striatum
• Insula
• ACC

• Proprioception
• Integration of contexts, social cues, and other cognitive processes

• Distinct activity associated with self-referential processing
• Active at baseline while self-referential thinking (e.g., daydreaming about the self)
• Most active when thinking about the self
• Brain regions are functionally and structurally connected
• Crucial: medial PFC

• ACC (particularly ventral ACC)

• Tendency to assume more positive attributes and circumstances of ourselves
• ACC
• Focuses attention on stimuli that are positive and self-relevant
• Decreased activity when information about the self is negative

• Medial PFC
• Superior temporal gyrus
• Superior temporal sulcus
• Medial frontal lobe
• Inferior parietal lobe
• Temporo-parietal junction
• Amygdala

• Regions involved in the experience of emotion are also involved in perception of others' emotional states
• "Mirroring system" involved in ToM

• Non-specific reasoning about others' mental states

• Incorporation of social contexts into determining others' mental states
• Moral judgments
• See acts as permissable with rTMS

• Posterior right temporo-parietal junction
• Intentions of others
• Only active in false belief tasks

• Anterior right temporo-parietal junction:
• Orients attention to social cues
• Guides behaviour
• False belief tasks
• Intentionality

• Directs eye gaze to socially-relevant cues

• Impaired default network
• Also deficits in activity at regions related to ToM

• Elicits emotional states that bias social knowledge and guide social behaviour
• Interacts with amygdala
• Decision making
• Moral judgments
• Socially appropriate behaviour

• Intact cognition and explicit social knowledge
• Cannot apply social knowledge to own behaviour
• Deficit in somatic marking of negative outcomes