aptitude–treatment interaction (ATI)

controversial children

children who receive many nominations as a liked and many as a disliked individual. 

cooperative learning methods

educational practice whereby children of different races or ability levels are assigned to teams; each team member works on problems geared to his or her ability level, and all members are reinforced for “pulling together” and performing well as a team. 

cross-pressures

conflicts stemming from differences in the values and practices advocated by parents and those favoured by peers. 

desensitization

hypothesis the notion that people who watch a lot of media violence will become less aroused by aggression and more tolerant of violent and aggressive acts. (p. 654)

largely noninteractive play in which players are in close proximity but do not often attempt to influence each other. 

sociometric techniques

procedures that ask children to identify those peers they like or dislike or to rate peers for their desirability as companions; used to measure children’s peer acceptance

television literacy

a person’s ability to understand how information is conveyed in television programming and to interpret this information properly.

Two key dimensions of parenting are?

The acceptance dimension is a measure of the amount of affection a parent displays, as well as the amount of support the parent provides.

The control dimension is a measure of the amount of regulation and control that parents provide for their children. 

- Authoritarian

- Authoritative

- Permissive

-Uninvolved

The interactions between preschool children and their parents. 

She found the styles of parenting.

Restrictive parents who expect strict, unquestioning obedience to rules they impose.

(high in control, low in responsiveness)

Permissive parents set few restrictions on their children, and they encourage children to express their feelings and impulses. 

(low in control, high in responsiveness)

1) Economic hardships that lower SES, parents are forced to deal with and create psychological stress.

2) Working class parents are often blue-collar workers, this means that they generally defer autority at work, making them extremely authoritative at home because they see that as a sense of future success. 

1) A source of emotional support

2) Assist in caring for younger siblings

3) Learning through observation

4) Interaction can develop Psychosocial development, promoting competency in interpersonal interactions.

1) When they have a difficult temper

2) When the child is emotionally unresponsive

3) Hyperactive or irritable

1) Engaging in sexualized behaviours

2) PTSD

1)Establishment of a warm, secure, and supportive relationship with a nonabusive significant other. 

2) Avoidance of stress

1) premoral stage; where children show little concern for rules that might govern behaviour.

2) During early elementary school; heteronomous morality. (aware of existing rules, but believe that rules can not be changed.)

3) preadolescence; moral relativism (autonomous morality); children now recognize that social rules can be challenged or even changed. 

1) Preconventional; follow rules to avoid punishment (punishment and obedience) or (Naive hedonism)

2) Conventional; to gain approval fo others ("good boy" orientation) or (Social-order maintaining morality)

3) Postconventional; make decision between right and wrong. (Social-contract orientation) or (Morality of individual princples of conscience)

1) Verbal and social reinforcement of altruistic behaviours.

2) less likely to produce result; tangible, external rewards. 

3) Modelling altruistic behaviour has a positive impact on children. 

Several behavioural genetic studies of adolescent twins have investigated genetic influences on gender-role development. Results from these studies suggest that genotype accounts for approximately ___ percent of the variability in masculine self-concepts, but less than ____ percent of the variability in feminine self-concepts. 

Believes that gender roles preferences are emerged in the phallic stage. 

What does social learning theory believe about gender-role development?

What does Kholberg's cognitive development theory suggest about gender role development?

1) The child has a basic gender identity by the age of 3, when they can label themselves as boys and girls.

2) Children then recognize that gender is stable over time.

3) Children realize that gender is stable across situations.

What does Martin and Halverson's gender shcema theory suggest about gender role development?

1) individual's level of cognitive development

2) The type of parenting they recieve

3) the level of education they have

4) The broader social-cultural context that the individual experiences

1) Parenting style

2) Peer influences

3) Culture, Ethnicity

1) Joy in mastery

2) Approval-seeking

3) Use of standards

1) quality of child's attachment relationships

2) The child's home environemnt

3) The parenting style the child recieves.

When an individual make a stable internal attribution, the outcome is?

When an individual makes a stable external attribution, the outcome is seen as?

seen as a result of individual ability

the result of task difficulty

When an individual makes an unstable internal attribution, the ouctome is seen as?

When an individual makes an unstable external attribution, the outcome is seen as?

result of individual effort

result of luck

1) competent emotional expressivity: a person who has achieved this displays positive emotions frequently.

2) Competent emotional knowledge; a person who has achieved this is able to correctly identify why and how other people are feeling.

3)Competent emotional regulation: a person who has achieved this is able to adjust his emotional arousal to an appropriate level of intensity.

Easy; open and adaptable to new experiences- habits are regular and predictable.

Difficult; react vigorously to new experiences and are slow to adapt to new situations- habits irregular and unpredictable

Slow-to-warm-up; moody and inactive

One important contributor to the establishment and growth of an attachment relationship is the presence of ?

1) Asocial phase; many stimuli the child will respond to.

2) Indiscriminate attachments; show a clear preference for social stimuli over nonsocial.

3) Infants begin to show signs of specific attachment to caregiver

4) Many attachments are formed.

1) Psychoanalytic; suggests that during the first year of life oral activities are source of pleasure, infants develop loving feelings for people who feed them.

2)Learning theories; suggest that infants become attached to people who feed them because the caregivers become associated with a positive sensation.

3) Cognitive development; object premanence is developing, argue that until the child realizes that objects continue to exist, he will not protest when seperated from caregiver.

4) Ethological: have evolved in ways that predispose them to respond favourably to each other and to form close attachments.

Recent research supports the conclusion that both ___________ and the _________ of the individual interact in the development of attachment.

Infants who develop positive models of themselves but negative models of others should display?

Infants who develop positive models of others but negative models of themselves should display?

Infants who develop negative models of both themselves and others should display?

difficult temperament

temperamental profile in which the child is irregular in daily routines and adapts slowly to new experiences, often responding negatively and intensely. (p. 444)

kewpie doll effect

the notion that infantlike facial features are perceived as cute and lovable and elicit favourable responses from others. (p. 451)

temperament hypothesis

Kagan’s view that the Strange Situation measures individual differences in infants’ temperaments rather than the quality of their attachments. (p. 463)

Phonology refers to the basic sounds that make up a language and the rules for combining those sounds into units of speech that convey meaning. 

Morphological rules specify how words are formed from speech sounds.

The expression of meaning, either in words or sentences, is called semantics.

The rules that specify how words are combined to form meaningful phrases or sentences make up the syntax of a language. 

Pragmatics involves sociolinguistic knowledge, or rules about the use of language in a social context. 

declarative vs imperative gestures?

declarative; used to direct attention of other people

imperative; used to try to convince others to grant a request

referential style; mainly words that refer to people or objects.

expressive style; personal or social words.

over; this occurs when a word is used too broadly

under; this occurs when a word is used too narrowly

1) object scope 

2) taxonomic

3) lexical contrast

4) mutual exclusivity

Broca’s area

structure located in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex that controls language production. (p. 394)

creoles

languages that develop when pidgins are transformed into grammatically complex “true” languages. (p. 396)

mutual exclusivity

constraint the notion that young children assume that each object has only one label and that different words refer to separate and not overlapping categories. (p. 408)

processing constraints

cognitive biases or tendencies that lead infants and toddlers to favour certain interpretations of the meaning of new words over other interpretations.

Wernicke’s area

structure located in the temporal lobe of the left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex that is responsible for interpreting speech. (p. 394)

In all psychometric theories, intelligence is conceptualized as ?

________ produced the first modern test of intelligence. 

g-factor; general intellectual ability

s-factor; special abilities that are specific to particular types of tests.

including spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical reasoning, verbal meaning, word fluency, memory, and inductive reasoning.

Guilford took a different approach to analyzing intellectual ability and suggested that there are five types of intellectual content (____________), six types of mental operations (____________), and six types of intellectual products (__________________). 

- areas that a person can think about

- the type of thinking required by a task

- the type of answer that is required for a given problem

Gardner has also criticized psychometric views of intelligence, suggesting that people display at least seven distinct types of intelligence.

The intelligences that Gardner has identified include linguistic intelligence, spatial intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, musical intelligence, body-kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal intelligence and intrapersonal intelligence, naturalist intelligence, and spiritual/existential intelligence.

1) Stanford-Binet intelligence scale

2) The Wechsler scale

3)DIstribution of IQ scores

5) Group tests of mental performance

6) Assessing infant intelligence

The child’s mental age was divided by his or her chronological age, and the result was multiplied by 100. This ratio was termed an intelligence quotient, or IQ. When a child’s mental age and chronological age were the same, the resulting intelligence quotient would be 100. A score greater than 100 indicated that the child was performing at a level equivalent to that seen in older children; a score less than 100 indicated that the child was performing at a level equivalent to that seen in younger children.

contain nonverbal, or performance, subtests in addition to verbal subtests. Three scores are provided following the administration of a Wechsler test: a verbal IQ, a performance IQ, and a full-scale IQ. 

The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC) is based on modern information-processing theory. This test primarily measures fluid intelligence and is largely nonverbal in content. 

It can be used with infants ranging in age from 2 to 30 months, and it has three components: the motor scale, the mental scale, and the infant behavioural record. Scores from the first two scales are used to determine the infant’s developmental quotient (DQ).

 These measures are visual reaction time, rate of habituation, and preference for novelty. 

1) Cultural test bias; content of IQ test is biased against certain groups of test, takers.

2) Genetic Hypothesis; Group differences in IQ are hereditary.

3) Environmental hypothesis; Those who lower in IQ come from intellectually impoverished environments. 

compensatory interventions

special educational programs designed to further the cognitive growth and scholastic achievements of disadvantaged children. (p. 376)

crystallized intelligence

the ability to understand relations or solve problems that depend on knowledge acquired from schooling and other cultural influences. (p. 349)

cumulative-deficit hypothesis

the notion that impoverished environments inhibit intellectual growth and that these inhibiting effects accumulate over time. (p. 360)

hierarchical model of intelligence

model of the structure of intelligence in which a broad, general ability factor is at the top of the hierarchy, with a number of specialized ability factors nested underneath. (p. 349)

tacit (or practical) intelligence

ability to size up everyday problems and solve them; only modestly related to IQ. (p. 361)

three-stratum theory of intelligence

Carroll’s hierarchical model of intelligence with g at the top of the hierarchy, eight broad abilities at the second level, or stratum, and narrower domains of each second-stratum ability at the third stratum. (p. 349)

cohort effect

age-related difference among cohorts that is attributable to cultural/ historical differences in cohorts’ growingup experiences rather than to true developmental change. (p. 29)

confounding variable

some factor other than the independent variable that, if not controlled by the experimenter, could explain any differences across treatment conditions in participants’ performance on the dependent variable. (p. 22)