• Social comparisons
• Relfected appraisals
• Self-appraisals

• Self-concept (thinking)
• Self-esteem (feeling)
• Self-presentation (behaviour)

• Personal definition of who you are
• Incorporates traits, social roles

• Ability to recognize yourself in a mirror

• Physical development + Cognitive development + Social experience
• Physical awareness
• Self-recognition (mirror)
• Language that describes self and other
• Development of physical attributes
• Comparison to peers
• Last skill to develop: understanding that traits are enduring personal characterisitics (9 - 10 yrs)

Elementary school

• Understanding of the idiosyncracies of self and others

Adolescence

• Personality characteristics become more abstract
• Identity development and questioning

Adult

• Developed self-concept and identity

• Chimps learn self-recognition
• Need time to recognize that reflection is self and not another chimp
• Only chimps with previous exposure to mirror pass the red dot task

• Chimps raised in isolation never pass red dot task, even with exposure to mirrors

• Cognitive - need to have experience with mirror and time to learn that it is yourself
• Social-emotional - need presence of others to understand self

• 18 months

• Recognize that traits are consistent in different domains and situations
• Development of private self
• Thoughts and desires can be unique (i.e., not shared)
• Peers as a social metric for the self-concept

• Awareness that you are the object of others' attentions

• We appraise ourselves by internalizing others' appraisals of us

• Objective self-awareness + reflected appraisals
• Ability to see yourself from the point of view of both a specific person and generalized "others"
• Developed during adolescence
• Basis of adolescent self-esteem

• Definition of the self based on social expectations, personal potential, and values
• Key: social construct
• Part of the self-concept

• Distress and (possible) failure caused by stereotypes that threaten self-esteem
• Occurs when we hold an identity that makes us a member of a marginalized group

• Caucasian, African-American, and Hispanic children took a test
• Half told that it was "not a test," half told "test of how good at school problems"
• Averages were the same when the children were told that it was not a test
• When thinking it reflected school ability, African American and Hispanic children did much worse compared with Cauasian children and with the children in the other condition

• Respondents are asked to give 20 answers to the question "who are you?"
• Statements tend to move from social groups to more idiosyncratic traits
• Demonstrates the importance of social context in defining the self
• Cultural differences
• Inclusion in social circles
• How we are similar and different from others

• Physical
• Social
• Attributive (psychological & physiological)
• Global

• Americans tend to provide attributive self-descriptions
• Japanese and Chinese tend to provide social self-descriptions

• Focus on how the individual is distinct from the group

• Focus on sharing of beliefs and being part of the social group

• 80%

• Cultural complexity (are there choices for beliefs?)
• Affluence (variety, choice, specializations)
• Group isolation

• Viewing the self as distinct and autonomous
• Individualistic cultures
• Growth through self-discovery and actualization
• Truest self when alone

• View that the self includes other people, and it cannot be defined without the social group
• Collectivist cultures

• People in individualistic cultures have greater need for positive self-regard
• People in collectivist cultures understand that the social circumstance dictates attitudes/behaviour, and so they are less concerned with inconsistency

• 1960s and 70s
• Social upheaval
• Americans stopped seeing themselves in social terms
• Began tendency toward individualism

• All of the selves we might become
• Hoped-for selves
• Feared selves

• Goal selection
• Motivation
• Continuity of self-concept over time
• Context to interpret and appraise our experiences

• Through social context

• Typically there are gender differences in what you look for in a mate--men want a homemaker and women want a provider
• Men and women imagining the possible self of homemaker preferred mates with provider traits
• Men and women imagining the possible self of provider preferred mates with homemaker traits

• Balance predicts best outcomes

• Life satisfaction is optimized when there is minimal discrepancy between (hoped-for) possible selves and actual self

• Appraisal of your self-worth or value
• Global, domain-specific

• Rosenburg

• High self-esteem apparent at high scores due to extreme responding
• Low self-esteem is rarely reported. Respondents instead choose neutral options (neither agree nor disagree). 
• Low self-esteem usually determined by a criterion (e.g., lowest third of the sample)

• Persistence
• Rebounding after failure
• Low emotional reactivity
• Physical health

• Consistency of self-esteem

• Greater emotional reactivity
• Feelings of vulnerability

• Consistency of self-report

• Feeling (self-esteem) is to thinking (self-concept)

• Protects self-esteem when you fail
• Bolsters self-esteem when you succeed

• Method for categorizing qualitative data
• Code data then analyze

• Reduces experimenter bias
• Unforeseen responses
• Responses are personally meaningful
• Validity of response
• Generally, freedom in responding

1. Research question
2. Choose analyses
3. Item prompts
4. Identify unit of analysis (what will be coded)
5. Develop coding system
6. Validate coding system
7. Train coders and achieve interrater reliability
8. Collect data
9. Code, analyze, interpret

• Behavioural means of conveying the self to others
• Authentic or strategic

• Behaviours that strategically convey a particular self

• Ingratiation
• Intimidation
• Self-promotion
• Exemplification
• Supplication

• Self-presentation tactic
• Behaviour: flattery
• Self-image: likeability

• Self-presentation tactic
• Behaviour: threatening
• Self-image: dangerous

• Self-presentation tactic
• Behaviour: flaunting positive attributes
• Self-image: competent

• Self-presentation tactic
• Behaviour: flaunting success
• Self-image: model example

• Self-presentation tactic
• Behaviour: role of victim
• Self-image: helpless

• Trait that reflects the degree to which you monitor your self-presentation behaviours
• Awareness and management of self-presentation

Low self-monitors

• Greater consistency between attitudes and behaviours (do not switch based on context)

High self-monitors

• More circles of friends (rather than one group) because they choose friends for the activity at hand
• Less consistent in behaviours
• Tend to be leaders because they are well-liked by the team

Neither has markedly better functional outcomes. Extremes are not good.

• Impressions of the self that we are consciously aware of and can describe

• Knowledge of the self that is expressed through our actions rather than through what we can describe
• Can have conscious awareness of this knowledge, but cannot articulate well
• Rational self and implicit self

• Who we are in relationships
• How we respond to others
• Based on experiences

• Behavioural patterns that we are not consciously aware of
• Includes relational self
• Measured with the Implicit Association Test

• We are good at knowing own emotional experience
• Others are better at knowing our behaviours

• Outlines how we develop accurate self-knowledge 

1. Relevance: choosing behaviours that speak to a trait
2. Availability: need to be consciously aware of the behaviour
3. Detection: detect the behaviour/trait, and ask others for feedback
4. Utilization: use the information correctly to judge self-knowledge

• Introspection
• Feedback from others
• Observing own behaviours

• Heritability

• Environmentality

• Variations in a single trait--at the population level--that can be accounted for by genetic influences
• Estimates are unique to a single trait, in a single population, at a single time

Double-the-difference formula:

h² = 2(r_MZ - r_DZ)

or,

h² = r_MZA

where MZA is monozygotic twins reared apart

• Equal environments assumption
• Assumption of representativeness

• Assumption that identical twins are not treated more alike than fraternal twins
• Underlies the double-the-difference formula for estimating hertiability
• If violated, can reduce the estimated effect of genetics

• Assumption that MZ twins are representative of the population at large
• Further, that adoptive families are similarly representative

• e²
• Variations in a single trait--at the popuation level--that can be accounted for by environmental differences

Individual variation = heritability + environmentality + measurement error

• Access to food, services, etc. is more or less equal in the population

• Environment provides maximum support available, and little difference in what individuals receive. This causes heritability to have more of an effect on individual variation.

• Concordance of social, physical, and psychological factors

• Encompass all non-genetic factors that make relatives similar
• Social, psychological, and physical factors that are shared

• Experiences that make relatives different from one another
• Any social, psychological, or physical factor that is not shared

• Genetics

• Environment (nonshared)

• Selective placement into quality homes
• Correlational
• No experimental control
• No random assignment

• .4 to .6

• Genetics: 40%
• Shared environment: 0%
• Nonshared environment: 40%
• Measurement error: 20%

• Form of a gene

• DNA sequence that codes for a trait

• Inheritance pattern when one trait is dominant over another

• Mechanism through which genetic changes are caused by factors other than inheritance

• Genotype
• Environment
• Gene-environment interaction
• Gene-environment correlation

• Ability to replace problematic gene sequences with similar, but adaptive, gene sequences

• Belief that opposites are not bad/wrong, but that opposites can both exist and give a more holistic picture when combined
• Gene-environment interactions and correlations
• Nature/nurture isn't a polarized issue

• Certain genotypes will become active in only in a particular environment
• Impact/effect of the environment depends on the genotype

• Delinquent Russian boys
• 3 genotypes
• Low maternal rejection and high maternal rejection did not predict depression, except for an interaction:
• One genotype was associated with depression when there had been high maternal rejection. Without this context (maternal rejection), though, there was no association.

• We seek out/construct our own environments because of our genotype (niche-picking)
• Genotypes have different exposures to environments

• Passive
• Reactive
• Active

• Positive
• Negative

• Individual does nothing to shape the fit between the genetic and environmental contexts
• e.g., parents treat you a certain way because of their genetics

• Occurs when the individual's behaviour alters the environment

• Occurs when the individual seeks environments that promote genetically-inherited traits

• Positive: promote the trait
• Negative: constrain the trait

Above is the simple way to think of it, but isn't entirely true. Positive/negative gene-environment correlations are about the process, not the outcome.

• Positive: genotype inclination toward a trait and environmental fostering of the trait work in the same direction (high/high or low/low)
• Negative: opposite directions

• Coding region of DNA

• Non-coding region of DNA
• In certain environments, these will influence coding regions, thus impacting gene expression

• Somatic nervous system: controls external environment, including muscles (movement)
• Autonomic nervous system: controls internal environment, including smooth muscles (inner organs)
• Sympathetic nervous system: fight/flight
• Parasympathetic nervous system: rest/digest

• Bodily response
• Brain structure
• Brain activity
• Biochemical activity

• Galvanic skin response (GSR)
• Electromyography

• CT scan (layered X-ray)
• MRI

• PET
• fMRI
• EEG/EP

• Use of NTs
• Challenge studies

• Diffusion tensor imaging
• Useful because it shows connectivity rather than isolated activation

• Temperament

Set of personality charactersitics
that are...

• Present at birth
• Stable across lifespan
• Expressed through general energy level
• Determined by genetic factors
• Changeable with maturation
• Similar across species

• Extraversion
• Neuroticism
• Impulsivity

• Positive emotion
• Sensative to reward
• Sociability
• Approach behaviours

• Negative emotion
• Anxiety
• Sensative to punishment
• Withdrawal behaviours

• Psychoticism (low conscientiousness and agreeableness)
• Lack of restraint
• Sensation and novelty seeking

• Activity level: overall
• Vigour (intensity)
• Tempo

• Emotionality: ease of physiological arousal
• Ease
• Intensity

• Sociability
• Attention
• Responsiveness

• Aggressiveness/impulsivity

• Eysenck's three dimensions
• i.e., PEN

• Extraversion = sociability, activity
• Neuroticism = emotionality
• Impulsivity = aggression/impulsivity

• Arousal/arousability
• (no baseline differences in arousal)

• No, not at baseline
• Appears that introverts are more easily aroused (i.e., greater arousability), and thus prefer less intense stimulation; vice versa
• Supported with study on music noise levels

• Pathway that transmits signals from the limbic system to the cortex

• One group of participants were categorized into introverts and extraverts. They chose ideal noise levels.
• Later participants were exposed to these noise levels.
• Introverts showed hyperarousal when exposed to extravert noise levels
• Extraverts showed hypoarousal when exposed to introvert noise levels
• Performance was best when noise level was matched with personality

• Instability of the sympathetic nervous system
• (Sensitivity to negative emotions)
• No empirical support

• There are three interconnected brain-behaviour systems
• Personality arises from the interplay of these systems
• Fight-flight-freeze, behavioural approach system, and behavioural inhibition system

• Part of reinforcement sensitivity theory
• Orchestrates response to aversive and fearful stimuli
• Personality factor: fear
• Extreme manifestation: avoidance, phobia, panic

• Part of reinforcement sensitivity theory
• Orchestrates responses to rewarding stimuli
• Personality factors: extraversion, impulsiveness, hedonic wanting
• Extreme manifestation: mania, risky behaviour, addiction

• Part of reinforcement sensitivity theory
• Orchestrates conflict resolution
• Sensitivity to punishment
• Personality factors: neuroticism, anxiety, hypervigilence, rumination
• Extreme manifestations: OCD, general anxiety

• Both involve intense affect
• Neuroticism is intense negative affect
• Extraversion is intense positive affect

• Anhedonia

• Psychoticism is higher-order construct
• Psychoticism involves antisocial tendency

• Discrepancy wherein the left and right hemispheres become differentially activated in response to positive and negative emotions
• Left hemisphere -- positive emotions
• Right hemisphere -- negative emotions

• E has greater baseline and reactive left hemisphere activation to positive emotions
• N has greater baseline and reactive right hemisphere activation to negative emotions

• Neuroticism: serotonin
• Extraversion: dopamine

• Seeking novel sensations
• Willingness to take risks for the sake of novel experiences

• Experience seeking
• Boredom susceptibility
• Thrill and adventure seeking
• Disinhibition

• Areas of the cerebral cortex have specialized functions

• Characteristics of the skull (shape, size, bumps) shed light onto personality characteristics

• Outer layer of the brain
• Conscious thought
• Receives sensory information and sends commands to muscles

• Judgment
• Impulse control
• Motivation
• Problem solving
• Movement

• Hearing
• Smell
• Emotions
• Visual identification
• Memory

• Somatosensation
• Taste
• Language comprehension
• Spatial orientation
• Reading

• Vision
• (Columnar organization)

• Problem solving
• Cognitive flexibility
• Self-monitoring
• Planning

• Sensory integration
• Response inhibition
• Emotional regulation

• Attention
• Error monitoring
• Emotional output
• Goal-directed behaviour

Neuroticism

• Greater global brain volume
• Thicker grey matter in the right hemisphere PFC
• Greater activation in temporal and frontal cortices in response to negative emotional stimuli

Extraversion

• Thicker grey matter in the left hemisphere PFC
• Greater activation of the temporal and frontal cortices in response to positive emotional stimuli

• Extraverts have greater concentration of grey matter in the left amygdala; neuroticism has greater concentration in right
• Extraverts have greater activation when viewing happy faces
• Neuroticism greater activation in response to negative emotions

• Greater DA activity in extraverts relative to introverts
• Introverts have greater fluctuations in DA in response to memory input

• High sensation seeking: activation of reward and approach systems
• Low sensation seeking: activation of BIS (caution) and decision making areas

• Interaction between...
• High DA reactivity
• Low 5-HT
• Low NE

• Varied sexual experiences
• Use of illegal drugs
• Risks in driving, sports

• Intrinsic motivation and persistence of behaviour requires...

i.   Autonomy

ii.  Competence

iii. Relatedness

• Groups varied on intrinsic/extrinsic motivation (told health benefits or weight loss) and autonomy
• Intrinsic condition showed greater effort during training, better performance after training, and better persistence of behaviour

• Focus on actualization and personal responsibility
• Experiential

• Inherent drive to actualize (i.e., thrive)

• Autonomy
• Competence
• Relatedness

• Freedom of choice
• Ability to self-regulate

• Ability to be effective
• Ability to master tasks

• Meaningful relationships
• Giving and receiving care
• Feeling connected

• Intrinsic motivation
• Strong task performance
• Skill development
• Well being

• Autonomy support

• Give choice
• Support choice that was made
• Support individual dealing with the consequences of choice
• Recognizing unique perspective
• Minimal pressure
• Encourage initative
• Link task to personal goals and values

• Structure
• Optimal challenge

• Clear expectations
• Clear contingencies
• Feedback
• Break task down

• Task shouldn't be too easy or too hard

• Involvement

• Time
• Interest
• Energy

Overjustification effect:

What is it and when does it occur?

• Offering extrinsic reward for a task that is enjoyed reduces intrinsic motivation, resulting in a reduction of behaviour and/or in quality of performance
• Only when reward is expected

• Controlling vs. informational
• Controlling rewards reduce autonomy
• Informational rewards highlight competence and relatedness
• Tangibility
• Expectation

• Contingency between behaviour and outcomes
• Control --> Helplessness

• Contingency between choice and behaviour
• Autonomy --> Compliance/Defiance

• Belief that you are competent and effective
• Two components:
• Outcome expectation
• Efficacy expectation

• Belief that a behaviour will produce a particular result

• Belief that you are capable of a behaviour

• Experience
• Vicarious experience
• Persuasion
• Physical and emotional states

• (Social modeling, observational learning)
• Anticipation of what personal experience would be like
• Strategy development

• Another person can change your efficacy and/or expectations

• We use feedback as a metric for performance
• We avoid tasks that cause depression, anxiety, pain, fatigue

• Ability to adjust behaviours and attitudes, so as to increase motivation for a task

• Intrinsic/extrinsic
• Autonomous/avolitional

Controlled

• External
• Introjected

Autonomous

• Identified
• Integrated

• Behaviour is motivated by something within yourself (e.g., emotions)
• Somewhat external perceived locus of causality
• Self-control, internal rewards

• Behaviour is motivated as a means to an end
• Somewhat internal perceived locus of causality
• Personally meaningful

• Behaviour is motivated by the principles surrounding it
• Internal perceived locus of causality
• Personally meaningful

• Typical way of self-regulating

• Autonomous orientation
• Controlled orientation

• Causality orientation
• Perceiving situations as autonomy supportive and within the capability of self-regulation
• Developed when needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness) are consistently met
• Choose activities with intrinsic motivation
• Better outcomes

• Reliance on extrinsic motivation (external reward and introjected feelings) for behaviour and self-regulation
• Developed when autonomy needs are unmet
• Lower well being

• Perception that situations are beyond personal control
• Developed when needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness) are unmet
• Poor outcomes

• Ask questions, invite others to help solve problems
• Actively listen
• Offer choice
• Sincere feedback regarding initiative
• Minimize coercive control
• Develop talent
• Share knowledge

• Hedonia: pleasure-seeking
• Extrinsic motivation

• Eudaemonia: seeking deeper meaning through goals, relationships, and accountability
• Intrinsic motivation

• Enjoyable for their own sake

• Subjective experience of an autotelic activity
• Activity's challenge matches personal skill
• Complete concentration on task
• Elevated mood

• American children feel controlled/hurt when teacher gives firm guidance
• Chinese children feel loved/cared for

• Specific
• Do not compliment physical trait; focus on initiative
• Praise the person for their progress, not the outcome
• Do not ask favour
• Choose people/qualities that are not obvious
• Praise those who get lots of praise
• Praise behind people's back

Communion

• Concern for the group
• Interdependence

• Concern for the self
• Assertiveness

• Trivial = 0.1
• Small = 0.11 - 0.35
• Med = 0.36 - 0.65
• Large = 0.66 - 1.0
• Very large = >1.0

• Influence of the variable on the observed effect

• Agreeableness: sympathy
• Extraversion: assertiveness
• Neuroticism

• Belief that you will be successful at a particular task
• (as opposed to global evaluation or worth, as in self-esteem)

• Suggests that gender differences are modeled by others

• Gender roles are dictated based on what is socially considered appropriate for boys and girls

• Gender differences are the result of the social roles men and women typically hold

• Anonymity from being part of a group and/or being unidentified
• Women and men behave similarly in the context of deidividuation, supporting social role theory
• Study with videogame violence--gender differences disappeared in deindividuation condition

• Gender differences are largely consistent across 26 cultures

• Anxious women have attention bias to negative faces
• Embracing the emotion
• Anxious men have attention bias to happy faces
• Distracting from the emotion

• One dimension: rate on a scale from masculine to feminine
• Two dimensions: rate masculinity and femininity on separate scales
• e.g., can be high on both

• Biological sex
• Identity
• Expression
• Attraction

• Social perception that heterosexuality is normal and all else is abnormal
• Provides legal, political, and social advantages for heterosexuals

• Erotic arousal, feelings, thoughts, and behaviours toward a target (e.g., man or woman)

• Erotic arousal, feelings, thoughts, without accompanying behaviour

• Labels that are self-assigned to describe one's sexuality

• Mexico: inserting male is not considered homosexual
• Sumatra: tomboi
• Native Americans: considered to have two spirits and to be blessed

• Evolutionary theory of male homosexuality
• A man without a female partner will pair with another man for resources

• Homosexuality is favoured because gay relatives can help look after your children without worrying about their own

• Evolutionary theory of male homosexuality
• Women with gay relatives have more children, due to kin altruism--male relatives can take care of children without sharing resources with their own

• Women and homosexual men, but not heterosexual men, have similarly-sized clusters of INAH nuclei (interstitial nuclei found in the anterior hypothalamus)

• Homosexuality is the result of self-identification with the opposite biological sex
• Disconfirmed, & it appears that gender nonconformity is a better predictor

• Lack of identification with the same-sex parent
• Weak father and/or domineering mother

• States that gender nonconformity leads to homosexuality, because in heterosexuality you become attracted to the sex you are unfamiliar with (i.e., the "opposite" sex)

• Female and male sexualities are different
• Sexual desire combined with emotional attachment

• Ability to recover from hard times
• Ability to adapt to ongoing stressors

• "Hardy"
• Positive emotions
• Gratitude
• Relaxation
• Loving relationships
• Meaningful life
• Optimism (negative events viewed as opportunities)
• Control outcomes of behaviour (external locus of control)
• Active engagement in social network
• Seek challenges
• Lower perception of life stress

• Thriving
• Resilience (recovery)
• Survival with impairment
• Succumbing

• Openness
• (Aesthetic appreciation, in particular)

• Model of personality and health
• Some personality traits perpetuate exposure to adverse events

• Genetic or constitutional factors influence personality and disease

• Model of personality and health
• Personality characteristics modify physiological responses

• Changing outlook and behaviours such that a threatening experience becomes manageable
• e.g., Time with friends, finding meaning

1. Experience positive emotions
2. Broaden thought-action possibilties for that moment
3. Establish enduring personal resources
4. Transform people, produce upward spirals
5. (Repeat from 1)