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| the age-related physical, intellectual, social, and personal changes that occur throughout an individual’s lifetime |
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| principle of conservation |
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| environmental agents – such as disease organisms or drugs – that can potentially damage the developing embryo or fetus |
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| the fertilized human egg, containing 23 chromosomes from the father and 23 chromosomes from the mother |
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| an in-depth observation of one subject |
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| an educated guess about how one variable will influence another variable. Researcher must be able to control or manipulate the main variables in a study |
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| individuals who pose as participants but who are really working for the researcher |
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| researchers do not reveal which data were collected from which participant |
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| any factor that affects the dependent measure other than the independent variable |
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| the relationship between two or more variables |
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| a number that tells us the strength of the relationship between two factors, ranging from -1.00 to +1.00 |
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| after an experiment, participants are fully informed of the nature of the study |
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| the variable in an experiment that measures any effect of the manipulation |
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| a research method that is used to test causal hypotheses |
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| how well a researcher’s findings apply to other individuals and situations |
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| the variable in an experiment that is manipulated |
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| research participants agree to participate after being told about aspects of the study |
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| institutional review board (IRB) |
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| a committee that reviews research proposals to ensure that ethical standards have been met |
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| observing behavior in the environment in which the behavior typically occurs |
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| a relationship in which increases in one variable correspond to decreases in a second variable |
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| the entire universe of animals or people that could be studied |
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| a relationship in which increases in one variable correspond to increases in a second variable |
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| an educated guess about the relationships among variables. Addresses the goals of description and prediction |
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| a research study that is not a true experiment because participants are not randomly assigned to the conditions of the study |
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| participants have an equal chance of being placed in any condition of the study |
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| when all people have an equal chance of being selected to participate in a study |
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| the portion of the population of interest that is selected for a study |
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| groups of people who are easily accessible to the researcher |
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| use of various cues and strategies to improve the memory of eyewitnesses |
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| process by which relatively permanent memories are formed in the brain |
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| reorganizing or updating memories on the basis of logic, reasoning, or the addition of new information |
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| a graph that shows the amount of memorized information remembered after varying lengths of time |
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| that part of long-term memory containing specific factual information |
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| theory that memory traces weaken when memories are not periodically used or retrieved |
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| a brief continuation of sensory activity in the auditory system after a sound is heard |
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| the ability to retain a “projected” mental image long enough to use it as a source of information |
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| rehearsal that links new information with existing memories and knowledge |
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| electroconvulsive shock (ECS) |
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| an electric current passed directly through the brain, producing a convulsion |
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| converting information into a form in which it will be retained in memory |
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| failure to store sufficient information to form a useful memory |
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| a “memory trace” in the brain |
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| a subpart of declarative memory that records personal experiences that are linked with specific times and places |
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| a memory that a person is aware of having; a memory that is consciously retrieved |
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| a feeling that allows people to predict beforehand whether they will be able to remember something |
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| memories created at times of high emotion that seem especially vivid |
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| a brain structure associated with emotion and the transfer of information from short-term memory to long-term memory |
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| a mental image or visual representation |
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| a memory that a person does not know exists; a memory that is retrieved unconsciously |
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| meaningful units of information, such as numbers, letters, words, or phrases |
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| information bits grouped into larger units |
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| the tendency for new memories to impair retrieval of older memories, and the reverse |
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| mental images or visual depictions used in memory and thinking |
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| the memory system used for relatively permanent storage of meaningful information |
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| silently repeating or mentally reviewing information to hold it in short-term memory |
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| a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption |
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| the mental system for receiving, encoding, storing, organizing, altering, and retrieving information |
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| any stimulus associated with a particular memory. Memory cues usually enhance retrieval |
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| the fading or weakening of memories assumed to occur when memory traces become weaker |
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| any task designed to test or assess memory |
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| physical changes in nerve cells or brain activity that take place when memories are stored |
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| any kind of memory system or aid |
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| mastery of one task conflicts with learning or performing another |
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| a model of memory that views it as an organized system of linked information |
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| mastery of one task aids learning or performing another |
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| facilitating the retrieval of an implicit memory by using cues to activate hidden memories |
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| the tendency for old memories to interfere with the retrieval of newer memories |
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| long-term memories of conditioned responses and learned skills |
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| to supply or reproduce memorized information with a minimum of external cues |
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| reorganizing or modifying information to assist storage in memory |
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| an ability to correctly identify previously learned information |
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| memories that are reconstructed or expanded by starting with one memory and then following chains of association to other, related memories |
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| learning again something that was previously learned. Used to measure memory of prior learning |
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| unconsciously pushing unwanted memories out of awareness |
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| recovering information from storage in memory |
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| the tendency for new memories to interfere with the retrieval of old memories |
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| the first stage of memory, which holds an exact record of incoming information for a few second or less |
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| the tendency to make the most errors in remembering the middle items of an ordered list |
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| the memory system used to hold small amounts of information for relatively brief time periods |
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| a practice schedule that alternates study periods with brief rests |
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| memory influenced by one’s bodily state at the time of learning and at the time of retrieval. Improved memory occurs when the bodily states match |
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| holding information in memory for later use |
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| a conscious effort to put something out of mind or to keep it from awareness |
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| the feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable |
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| another name for short-term memory, especially when it is used for thinking and problem solving |
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| a situation in which a response can prevent the delivery of an aversive stimulus, such as when a rat learns to jump over a barrier to avoid a shock |
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| a set of procedures used to investigate how organisms learn about the signaling properties of events. Classical conditioning involves learning relations between events – conditioned and unconditioned stimuli – that occur outside of one’s control |
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| learning that an event signals the absence of the unconditioned stimulus |
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| a stimulus that has acquired reinforcing properties through prior learning |
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| conditioned response (CR) |
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| the acquired response that is produced by the conditioned stimulus in anticipation of the unconditioned stimulus |
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| conditioned stimulus (CS) |
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| the neutral stimulus that is paired with the unconditioned stimulus during classical conditioning |
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| the stimulus situation that sets the occasion for a response to be followed by reinforcement or punishment |
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| a situation in which a response can reduce or eliminate an unpleasant stimulus, such as when a rat escapes an ongoing shock by jumping over a barrier |
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| presenting a conditioned stimulus repeatedly, after conditioning, without the unconditioned stimulus, resulting in a loss of pairing |
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| fixed-interval (FI) schedule |
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| a schedule in which the reinforcement is delivered for the first response that occurs following a fixed interval of time |
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| fixed-ratio (FR) schedule |
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| a schedule in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is fixed and does not change |
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| the decline in the tendency to respond to an event that has become familiar through repeated exposure |
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| if a response in a particular situation is followed by a satisfying consequence, it will be strengthened. If a response in a particular situation is followed by an unsatisfying consequence, it will be weakened |
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| a relatively permanent change in behavior, or potential behavior, that results from experience |
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| the natural tendency to imitate the behavior of significant others |
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| an event that, when removed after a response, lowers the likelihood of that response occurring again |
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| an event that, when removed after a response, increases the likelihood of that response occurring again |
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| learning by observing the experience of others |
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| a procedure for studying how organisms learn about the consequences of their own voluntary actions (also called instrumental conditioning) |
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| an inborn tendency to notice and respond to novel or surprising events |
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| partial reinforcement schedule |
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| a schedule in which reinforcement is delivered only some of the time after the response has occurred |
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| an event that, when presented after a response, lowers the likelihood of that response occurring again |
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| an event that, when presented after a response, increases the likelihood of that response |
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| consequences that decrease the likelihood of responding in a similar way again |
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| response consequences that increase the likelihood of responding in a similar way again |
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| schedule of reinforcement |
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| a rule that an experimenter uses to determine when particular responses will be reinforced |
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| second-order conditioning |
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| a procedure in which an established conditioned stimulus is used to condition a second neutral stimulus |
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| increased responsiveness, or sensitivity, to an event that has been repeated |
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| a procedure in which reinforcement is delivered for successive approximations of the desired response |
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| the recovery of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus |
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| responding differently to a new stimulus than how one responds to an established conditioned stimulus |
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| responding to a new stimulus in a way similar to the response produced by an established conditioned stimulus |
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| unconditioned response (UR) |
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| the observable response that is produced automatically, prior to training, on presentation of an unconditioned stimulus |
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| unconditioned stimulus (US) |
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| a stimulus that automatically leads to an observable response prior to any training |
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| variable-interval (VI) schedule |
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| a schedule in which the allotted time before a response will yield reinforcement varies from trial to trial |
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| variable-ratio (VR) schedule |
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| a schedule in which a certain number of responses are required for reinforcement, but the number of required responses typically changes |
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