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Definition
-how the mind works
-how we gain information about the world
-how information is presented and transformed as knowledge
-how information is stored
-how information is used to direct attention and behavior |
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| Cognitive Psychology involves: |
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Definition
| the total range of psychological processes ("higher" mental resources) |
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memory strategies.
-it is an example of cognitive science used in everyday life |
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| Can anyone have a good memory? |
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| What can you expect from your memory? |
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| Remembering is hard work, like any other skill it takes effort. Remembering will not be easier, but more effective. |
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| What is the best memory technique? |
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| Depends on the material, situation, and time. |
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| What is the best memory technique? |
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| Depends on the material, situation, and time. |
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| Do you need to practice memory skills? |
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Definition
| Yes, memory is not a muscle. |
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| 8 Principles of Memory Improvement: |
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Definition
1. Make things meaningful
2. Organize
3. Association
4. Visualize
5. Pay Attention
6. Get interested in what you have to learn
7. Practice
8. Feedback |
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| Examples of ways to make material meaningful in memory improvement: |
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Definition
| use concrete words, categories, use familiar information, rhymes, acronyms |
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| Examples of ways to organize in memory improvement: |
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| categories, patterns, chunking |
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| Examples of association in memory improvement: |
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take material you already know and associate it with the new material.
-ex. stalagmite vs. stalactite; mites are on the ground vs. hang tight |
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| We tend to pay attention to things if: |
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| we are interested, this is a principle of memory improvement. |
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| Guy taught mnemonic techniques. Memorized Time Magazine!! |
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| The 3 Internal Mnemonics: |
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Definition
1. Method of Loci (Location)
2. Peg Word
3. Link |
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| Method of Loci (Location): |
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Definition
| think of walking through some specific location, better for long lists of information. |
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"1 is bun", what you do when you typically study. Peg word is all about rhyming with numbers, better for short lists of information.
-movie shown about 1 is bun |
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| problem with Link is if you forget one work, you forget the remainder of the list |
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| IV and DV of Loci method in-class experiment: |
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IV- memory technique or not
DV- number of words recalled |
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| time between when list is given and time of recall. |
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Definition
-Beach 1993
-Looked at how external mnemonics are used in occupations
-Measured verbal mnemonic strategies and material mnemonic strategies |
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| Verbal Mnemonic Strategies: |
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Definition
(VMS), Materially arbitrary to with respect to their referents.
-ex. mixology book |
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| Material Mnemonic Strategies |
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(MMS), bear a direct material relation to their referents
-ex. glass shape |
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| Bar Tending Study IV, DV, experiment type: |
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Definition
IV- level (student, graduates, instructors). Another IV is type of Mnemonic.
DV- use of VMS and/or MMS during speed drills
This is a between subjects experiment
This is an interaction |
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| Findings of Bar Tending Study: |
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Definition
Students- relied on VMS primarily
Graduates- relied on MMS primarily
Instructors- relied on MMS slightly |
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-careful, slow accumulation of knowledge
-objective and repeatable |
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| discover laws or principles that govern the relations among objects being studied. |
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-accurately describe observations
-be general
-simplify our conception of the universe
-enable predictions and sometimes control of the actions of these objects |
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| How do scientist get direction? |
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world view including analogies, language, research methods, and subject matter.
-framework in overall perspective |
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Cumulative, not entirely objective, questions asked and interpretations guided by what is the dominant paradigm.
-cognitive psychology is in a period of normal science |
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| Progress in science involves: |
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| replacement of paradigm due to contradictory evidence combined with the discovery of a more parsimonious approach. |
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(1596-1650)
-Dualism (mind/body separation)
-"I think, therefore, I am"
-Mind not subject to natural law; cannot be studied scientifically.
-Body subject to natural law; can be studied scientifically. (ex. reflexes) |
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| The Scientific Study of the Body: |
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| explain not just reflexes that are pre-wired at birth (ex. knee jerk) but how reflexes can be modified throughout experience (ex. yell 'fire' and people run-- not pre-wired) |
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(1898)
-Instrumental conditioning (actions are instrumental in acquiring reward or punishment) |
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(1927)
-Classical Conditioning (involved reflexes) |
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| Scientists associated with scientific study of the mind: |
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Definition
1. Wundt
2. Donders
3. Ebbinghouse
4. William James |
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Definition
-established the first lab for psychology experiments in 1879
-rejected Descartes claim that the mind couldn't be studied because he felt psychology was the science of experience
-scientific study of contents of consciousness through the use of introspection
-self interpretation of inner sensation with out subjective interpretation (describe sensation, not object you see) |
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(1868)
-How long to decide
-reaction
-press a button when a light appeared |
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| first experiment describe memory process (1885) |
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-principles of psychology(1890)
described memory as consisting of two parts |
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| Principles of Behaviorism: |
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1. Activities of the mind are unobservable and thus have no place in the scientific study of psychology.
2. Behavior is determined by environmental events that are experienced (Watson 1926, Skinner 1948)
3. Reductionism |
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Definition
-Learning is explained in terms of a few basic principles assumed to be the same for all animals.
-Experiments involved simple learning situations with lower animals. |
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| Challenges for Behaviorism- from WITHIN Behaviorism: |
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Definition
1. Biological Constraints (Instinctive Drift)
2. Food Aversion |
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| Can not use behavioristic techniques to train any behavior. |
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| Animals are pre-wired to perform certain behaviors (Breland and Breland raccoon) |
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-If you ear something -> get sick -> avoid food later
-this example of 1-trial learning goes against behaviorism (operant conditioning, shaping)
-also stimulus and response are not close together in time, goes against behaviorism |
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| External challenges for Behaviorism: |
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Definition
1. Edward Tolman
2. World War 2
3. Causal Attributions
4. Observational Learning
5. Scientific challenges to view of associative chaining |
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Definition
(1938)
-Cognitive Maps
-Rat Maze:
--rat learns A->B (reward for turning at B)
--place rat at C
--rat goes right to B, even though C to B was never reinforced
-Tolman argues that the rat developed a cognitive mat of layout |
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| World War 2 (in relation to behaviorism): |
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Definition
there was a need to see human behavior is a different way than other animals.
-ex: attention, decision making |
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| perceptions of cause of behavior often involves learning a cognitive relationship |
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-vicarious (non-direct) learning
-Bandura's Bobo doll experiment
-need to postulate memory, what was observed |
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| Behaviorism challenges based on associative chaining: |
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Definition
-Lack of transfer from serial task (in order) to a paired-association task
-Bower and Winzenz (1969) learn a sequence based on a specific rhythm |
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| Principles of Cognitive Psychology: |
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Definition
1. Study of unobservables
2. Organism is an active seeker and process information
3. Non-reductionistic |
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| use observable behavior to draw inferences about unobservables |
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| Organism is an active seeker and process information: |
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Definition
| individual has some control over what is experiences, how it interprets experiences, and how experiences affect dealing with new experiences |
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-If you break down behavior you change it too much
-Not safe to assume that what you observe with rats is true of humans |
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A metaphor based on observations and in inferences that describes the detection, storage, and use of information.
-ex: information processing model
-assumes that cognition can be analyzed into series of stages |
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| Cognitive psychology combined with computer science and neurocognition |
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| Evidence for localization of some cognitive functions: |
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Definition
separate primary receiving areas for each sense
-ex. occipital lobe= vision, Broca's area= language |
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| Distributed Processing ='s: |
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Definition
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| Currently, neurological evidence supports a: |
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Definition
| constructivist view of memory |
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| Memory's location in the brain: |
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Definition
| Memory is not located in one area of the brain, but is distributed about many areas of the brain |
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| Memory is a by-product of: |
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Definition
| changes in connection strengths among areas of the brain dedicated to various cognitive activities |
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| Who contritubted more than any other to neuropsychology of memory? |
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Definition
-HM: at 27 had medial portions of temporal lobe removed (hippocampus, amaglyda, adjacent cortex) for the treatment of a severe case of epilepsy.
-after surgery has some STM and memory of events prior to surgery were still largely intact, was not able to create new memories (LTM) (antegrade amnesia)
-shows improvement on some tasks over time (ex. drawing) but is unaware of it |
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Definition
-Clive Wearing- amnesia, 20 years ago lost memory, wife only person he recognizes, virus that destroyed hippocampus and amgdyla. Has a notebook he wrote in about daily events.
-Nemo- dory STM loss
-Momento- not shown in class |
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| Scientific Contributions of HM: |
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Definition
1. challenged view that memory is equally and diffusely distributed throughout the brain--particular brain structures are important
2. distinction of STM and LTM
3. distinction of implicit and explicit (explicit memory affected by not implicit memory(procedural memory))
--also contributed to importance of temporal lobes and hippocampus |
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| Detecting Sensory Information: |
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Definition
| point of contact between the psychology and physical words such that: physical energy detected and transformed into neural energy and sensory experience. |
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Definition
vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch.
-Body senses: kinesthetic and vestibular |
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| movement of body as a whole |
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| study of correspondence between psychological experience and physical experience |
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| minimum physical energy needed to activate a given sensory system |
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| Sensory Information, in regards to signal detection experiment, is a function of: |
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Definition
-strength of a stimulus
-random "noise"
-observer expectations
-reward and punishment |
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Definition
| process through which people use knowledge and understanding of the world to interpret sensation as meaningful experiences (to understand what is the meaning behind the sensory information) |
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| complex composition of sensory stimuli that can be recognized as a member of a class of objects |
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| Pattern Recognition Involves: |
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taking information from a SIS (sensory information storehouse) and comparing it to information in LTM.
--Does not have to involve a verbal label (distinguish wines by taste alone) |
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-Data or stimulus driven
-Generally use features and clues in the stimulus to identify pattern, and NOT your existing knowledge as much. |
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| Gestalt model of Bottom-up processing: |
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Definition
-perceive whole pattern of stimuli
-parts on configuration derive meaning from membership in the whole
-emphasis on stimulus organizing pattern recognition (PR) and minimizes past experience of subject |
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| Gestalt Principles (tendencies) |
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Definition
1. Proximity- example of 2 sets of 6 circles
2. Similarity- group similar items
3. Common Feature (destiny)- things moving in same direction usually grouped together (ex. cars on highway, flock of bird, school of fish)
4. Pragnanz- figure seen as stable |
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| Template Matching Model of Bottom-up processing: |
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Definition
-match physical stimulus to representation (pattern of activity in the nervous system called "template")
-one to one match (you have a template for everything)
-all features are equally important
-ex. bar-code, keys, fingerprint
*problem- not very adaptive |
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| Problems with Template Matching Model of Bottom-up processing: |
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Definition
1. Hard to argue that there are an infinite number of templates
2. Recognition of novel stimuli
3. Generaliztion |
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| Feature Analysis Model of Bottom-up processing: |
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Definition
-every stimulus is made up of critical features
-combine critical features to form a stimulus from a conceptual category |
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| Evidence in support of critical features: |
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Definition
-innate features
-different cells can respond to different features |
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| Types of Bottom-up Processing: |
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Definition
1. Gestalt
2. Template Matching
3. Feature Analysis |
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| Problems of Bottom-up Processing: |
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Definition
-context in which a stimulus appears guides what is recognized
-more to processing than just processing features
-context depends on your knowledge |
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Definition
-conceptually driven (importance of past experiences)
-limits the number of possibilities that the system has to analyze
-understanding guided by means of 'top' level of knowledge stored in memory |
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| More irrelevant context -> |
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