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Psy 7 - Midterm 2
Terms from Lecture and Textbook
98
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
05/10/2012

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Term
Tuskegee Syphilis Study
Definition
African American men with the disease were told their disease was being treated but the progress of the disease was simply being measured

3 ethical violations: men were harmed (not told cure); not treated respectfully (lied to, no informed consent); targeted disadvantaged social group (poor African Americans)
Term
Milgram's Obedience Study
Definition
Electric Shock Study
Term
The Belmont Report
Definition
Respect for Person, Beneficence, and Justice.
Term
Stanford Prison Experiment
Definition
by Phillip Zimbardo, led to APA ethics code
Term
APA Ethics Code (American Psychological Association)
Definition
5 general ethical principles: Aspirational - Beneficence & nonmaleficence; fidelity & responsibility; integrity; justice; respect for people's rights & dignity
Term
10 Specific ethical standards
Definition
Enforcable
Term
Cronbach's Alpha
Definition
an average of all the possible item-total correlations
Term
Barnum Statements
Definition
Descriptions or predictions that are so general or ambiguous that they could apply to almost anybody, thereby indicating a lack of validity
Term
Subjective Forms of Validity
Definition
Face Validity: does it look like a good measurement.

Content Validity: does it include all the important components of the construct
Term
Empirically Derived Validity
Definition
Concurrent Validity: does your measure correlate with a relevant outcome right now?

Predictive Validity: does your measure correlate with a relevant outcome in the future

Convergent Validity: does your measure strongly correlate with measures of similar constructs

Divergent Validity: does your measure NOT correlate with measures of dissimilar constructs
Term
Reliability vs. Validity
Definition
Reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity
Term
Close-ended Questions
Definition
Forced-choice Format: pick best of 2 options
Likert Scale: 5 responses ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree
Semantic Differential Format: number scale anchored by contrasting adjectives
Term
Double Negative
Definition
wording that makes things confusing
Term
Response Sets
Definition
when a respondant adopts a consistent way of answering all questions that has little to do with their sincere opinions.

Examples: Yea-saying, nay-saying, fence-sitting
Term
Observational Research (Types)
Definition
Naturalistic Observation & Systematic Observation
Term
Naturalistic Observation
Definition
Goal is to accurately describe behaviors and events in a natural setting

Pros: data collection reflect's person's normal environment (external validity, real-world application)

Cons: privacy violation, participation vs non-participation, possible reactivity, how to ensure observations are objective
Term
Low-ball technique
Definition
Withhold information until participant agrees
Term
Systematic Observations
Definition
the goal is accurate observation of targeted behavior in a specific setting

3 Properties: interested only in specific behaviors, quantifiable, hypothesis-driven

3 ways of sampling: Time sampling, event sampling, and situation sampling
Term
Time sampling
Definition
record behavior at regular intervals of time (regular or systematic)
Term
Event sampling
Definition
recording behavior when it happens
Term
Situation sampling
Definition
recording behavior across different situations and settings
Term
Population
Definition
the group of all individuals a researcher is interested in (ex. fifth grade children)
Term
Sampling Frame
Definition
the ACTUAL population of individuals from which the sample is drawn (ex. list of all fifth grade children in CA)
Term
Sample
Definition
a subset of the population.Purpose is to estimate the response of the total population without having to survey everyone
Term
Representative Sampling Methods
Definition
Probability sampling, cluster sampling, multistage sampling, and stratified random sampling
Term
Probability Sampling
Definition
any method of sampling that used some form of random selection. Each person has an equal chance of being chosen, simple random sampling
Term
Cluster sampling
Definition
clusters of participants are randomly chosen from the population, and then data is collected from each participant in all the clusters
Term
Multistage Sampling
Definition
random sample of clusters taken, THEN a random sample of people within the clusters
Term
Stratified random sampling
Definition
aka proportional or quota sampling. divide the population into demographic subgroups THEN take a random sample from each subgroup that mirror the proportion in the population

Oversampling - intentionally over representing one or more groups

Systematic Sampling - counting off to achieve a sample (ex. every 4th)
Term
Unrepresentative (biased) sampling methods
Definition
Self-selected, convenience, purposive,
Term
Self-selected sampling
Definition
online polls
Term
Convenience sampling
Definition
those most readily available, VERY COMMON in psychological research. More of a problem when trying to represent a population, not a big problem when simply trying to correlate things. Can still achieve internal validity
Term
Purposive Sampling
Definition
Researcher selects (nonrandomly) sample of interest, snowball sampling.
Term
Snowball Sampling
Definition
asking specific target participants to refer friends. Used to find hard-to-reach or rare samples
Term
Debrief
Definition
to inform participants about a study's nature, details and hypothesis afterward
Term
Informed Consent
Definition
Research participants' right to learn about a research project, know its risks and benefits, and decide whether to participate
Term
Respect for Persons
Definition
an ethical principle from the Belmont report stating that research participants should be treated as autonomous agents and that certain groups deserve special protection.

No COERCION, or UNDUE INFLUENCE
Term
Beneficence
Definition
an ethical principle from the Belmont Report stating that researchers must take precautions to protect the participants from harm and to promote participant's well-being
Term
Justice
Definition
an ethical principle from the Belmont Report calling for a fair balance between the kinds of people who participate in research and the kinds of people who benefit from it
Term
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Definition
a committee responsible for ensuring that research on humans is conducted ethically
Term
Deception
Definition
the withholding of some details of a study from participants (through OMISSION) or the act of actively lying to them (deception through COMMISSION)
Term
Data Fabrication
Definition
the ethical problem that occurs when researchers invent data that fit their hypothesis
Term
Data falsification
Definition
an ethical problem that occurs when researchers influence a study's results, perhaps by deleting observations from a data set or by influencing their research subjects to act in a hypothesized way
Term
Plagiarism
Definition
the representation of the ideas or words of others as one's own
Term
Observational Measure
Definition
(aka behavioral measure) a variable measured by recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors
Term
Self-report measure
Definition
a method of measuring a variable in which people answer questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview
Term
Physiological Measure
Definition
a variable measured by recording biological data
Term
Categorical Variable
Definition
a variable whose levels are categories (ex. male/female)
Term
Quantitative Variable
Definition
a variable whose values can be recorded as meaningful numbers
Term
Ordinal Scale
Definition
a quantitative measurement scale whose levels represent a ranked order, in which it is unclear whether the distances between levels are equivalent (ex. a 5-star rating scale)
Term
Interval Scale
Definition
a quantitative measurement scale that has no "true zero" and in which the numerals represent equal intervals (distances) between levels (ex. temperature in degrees)
Term
Ratio Scale
Definition
a quantitative scale of measurement in which the numerals have equal intervals and the value of zero truly means "nothing" (ex. weight)
Term
Reliability
Definition
the consistency of measure
Term
Internal Reliability
Definition
in a measuring instrument that contains several items, the consistency in a pattern of answers, no matter how a question is phrased
Term
Interrater Reliability
Definition
the degree to which two or more coders or observers agree in their ratings of a set of targets
Term
Test-retest Reliability
Definition
the consistency in results every time a measure is used
Term
Correlation Coefficient (r)
Definition
a single number ranging fro -1.0 to 1.0, used to indicate the strength and direction of an association
Term
Slope direction
Definition
the upward, downward, or neutral slope of the cloud of points in a scatterplot
Term
Strength
Definition
a description of an associate indicating how closely the data points in a scatterplot cluster along a line of best fit drawn through them
Term
Cronbach's Alpha
Definition
(aka coefficient alpha) a correlation-based statistic that measures a scale's internal reliability
Term
Face validity
Definition
the extent to which a measure is subjectively considered a plausible operationalization of the conceptual variable in question
Term
Predictive Validity
Definition
an empirically supportive type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure is related to a concrete, FUTURE outcome that it should be related to
Term
Concurrent Validity
Definition
an empirically supported type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure is related to a concrete, SIMULTANEOUS outcome that it should be related to
Term
Content Validity
Definition
the extent to which a measure captures all parts of a defined construct
Term
Convergent Validity
Definition
an empirically supported type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure is associated with other measures of a theoretically similar construct
Term
Discriminant Validity
Definition
(aka divergent validity) an empirically supported type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure does not associate strongly with other, theoretically different constructs
Term
Open-ended Question
Definition
a question that allows the respondents to answer in any way they see fit
Term
Forced-choice Format
Definition
a question type in which respondents give their opinion by picking the best of two or more options
Term
Likert Scale
Definition
a scale containing multiple response options that are anchored by terms (strongly disagree - strongly agree). A scale that does not follow this format directly is a "Likert-like scale"
Term
Semantic Differential
Definition
A self-report response scale whose numbers are anchored with constrasting adjectives (ex. easy and hard)
Term
Response Set
Definition
A shortcut respondents may use to answer the items in a self-report measure with multiple items, rather than responding to the content of each item
Term
Acquiescence "yea-saying"
Definition
Answering "yes" or "strongly agree" to every item in a questionnaire or interview
Term
"nay-saying"
Definition
Answering "no" or "strongly disagree" to every item in a questionnaire or interview
Term
Fence Sitting
Definition
a situation that occurs when survey respondents play it safe by answering in the middle of the scale for every question in a questionnaire or interview
Term
Socially Desirable Responding
Definition
(aka faking good) giving answers to a self-report measure that makes one look better than one really is
Term
Faking bad
Definition
a situation that occurs when survey respondents give answers that make them look worse than they really are
Term
Observational Research
Definition
the process of watching people or animals and systematically recording what they're doing
Term
Observer Bias
Definition
a bias that occurs when observer's expectations influence their interpretation of the subject's behavior or the outcome of the study
Term
Masked study design/blind design
Definition
a study in which the observers are unaware of the experimental conditions to which participants have been assigned
Term
Observer Effects
Definition
(aka reactivity) a term referring to people or animals changing their behavior (reacting) because they know another person is watching
Term
Unobtrusive Observation
Definition
an observation made indirectly, through physical traces of behavior, or made by someone who is hidden or is posing as a bystander
Term
Sample (book)
Definition
a group of people, animals, or cases used in a study
Term
Population (book)
Definition
some larger group from which a sample is drawn, which the sample is intended to represent
Term
Census
Definition
a set of observations that contain all members of the population of interest
Term
Self-selection
Definition
a form of sampling bias that occurs when a sample contains only people who volunteer to participate
Term
Probability sampling
Definition
the process of drawing a sample from a population of interest in such a way that each member of the population has an equal probability of being included in the sample (ex. randomly)
Term
Simple Random Sampling
Definition
the most basic form of probability sampling, in which sample is chosen completely at random from the population, perhaps drawing names out of a hat
Term
Cluster Sampling
Definition
a sampling method in which researchers randomly select clusters of participants within the population and then collect data from all of the participants in each selected cluster
Term
Multistage Sampling
Definition
a method of sampling in which two random samples are taken from some population: a random sample of clusters and then a random sample of people within the clusters
Term
Stratified Random Sampling
Definition
a sampling method in which the researcher identifies particular demographic categories of interest and then randomly selects individuals within each of the categories
Term
Oversampling
Definition
A version of stratified random sampling in which the researcher intentionally over-represents one or more groups
Term
Systematic Sampling
Definition
a method of random sampling in which the researcher counts off to achieve a sample (ex. choosing every nth person in a population, where n is a randomly chosen number
Term
Random Assignment
Definition
the use of random method (ex. flipping a coin) to assign participants into different experimental groups
Term
Convenience Sampling
Definition
choosing a sample based on those who are easiest to access
Term
Purposive Sampling
Definition
the inclusion of only certain kinds of people in a sample
Term
Snowball Sample
Definition
a variation on purposive sampling in which participants are asked to recommend acquaintances for the study
Term
3 R's of Animal Research
Definition
Replacement: alternative to animals
Refinement: minimize animal distress
Reduction: use as few as possible
Term
Acceptance Level of Reliability
Definition
> .70
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