Term
| creative (biased) perception |
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Definition
given ambiguous information, we "fill in" (draw inferences) based on experience/we perceive what we expect is likely to be there
EG: Mars and a Smiley face "civilization" example |
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Term
| what is a special problem in research because researchers often know what they want/expect to see (hypotheses) and we often get limited glimpses of human behavior-easiest to misjudge incomplete information? |
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Definition
| creative/biased perception |
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Term
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Definition
| guidelines for how to gain knowledge that is accurate and unbiased |
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Term
| causal information can/cannot be flawed |
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Definition
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Term
| guilty until proven innocent is human nature or science? |
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Definition
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Term
| innocent until proven guilty is human nature or science? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| two things happened together |
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Term
| "it's not just what's true, but what there's evidence to document" is an example of what? |
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Definition
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Term
| what asks about how to psychological world works? |
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Definition
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Term
| what is an educated guess about an answer |
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Definition
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Term
| what provides evidence to guide your beliefs about the answer? |
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Definition
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Term
| science is about ______ and ________. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| observe the thing you want to learn about |
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Term
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Definition
| let the evidence (from your observations) guide your beliefs |
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Term
| a research question asks what? |
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Definition
| something about the world |
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Term
| a research question asks what? |
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Definition
| something about the world |
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Term
| what is a research design? |
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Definition
| a plan for getting answers to the research question |
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Term
| the type of plan or design depends on what? |
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Definition
| the kind of questions asked. |
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Term
| what are the three kinds of research questions? |
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Definition
| description (occurrence), prediction (co-occurrence), and control (causation) |
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Term
| what research question asks, "did X happen?", "How much of X exists?", or "What are key features of X?" |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| consists of some survey's or naturalistic observation |
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Term
| prediction can also be called... |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| 2 variables measures as they occur |
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Term
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Definition
positive correlation - when A is high, B is also high.
EG: ACT and GPA scores |
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Term
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Definition
| when A is high, B is usually low |
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Term
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Definition
| when A is high, B is usually low |
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Term
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Definition
| things may go together, but they might now |
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Term
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Definition
| more than one cause-effect relationship fits the evidence |
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Term
| co-occurrence could mean what? |
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Definition
| A changes B or B changed A (directionality problem) |
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Term
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Definition
An unmeasured factor (C) changes A and B.
EG: go out on a day and see who is wearing sunglasses and who is wearing shorts. Both could be influenced by weather, but not each other. |
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Term
| correlational studies don't do what? |
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Definition
| help us pin down what caused what to happen |
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Term
| control can also be called what? |
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Definition
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Term
| what is the only kind of research that is a search for causes? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are 3 tools for identifying causes? |
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Definition
| observation, measurement, and manipulation |
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Term
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Definition
a science of causes requires watching
- causes in action |
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Term
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Definition
| the behavior who's causes you want to learn about (the dependent variable) - what you measure |
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Term
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Definition
| a possible cause of change in the DV (independent variable) - what you manipulate |
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Term
| when is a cause-effect shown? |
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Definition
when you actively demonstrate that the IV is present and it happens, or the IV isn't present and it doesn't happen.
EG: how much did people sleep with the alarm v. without |
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Term
| what makes an experiment special? |
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Definition
| we chose when/how to vary the IV - we can see the IV affect the DV |
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Term
| we try to hold all factors of an experiment constant except for what? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
asks about the relationship between specific variables
EG: does gender affect math? |
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Term
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Definition
| general area of interest and usually identifies the IV or DV |
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Term
| where do good research questions come from? |
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Definition
| personal experience, being broadly informed, and published reports of the past |
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Term
| advatages of personal experiences for research |
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Definition
| unique opportunity to observe |
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Term
| disadvantages of personal experience for research |
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Definition
can we be objective about something we're passionate about?
EG: AA - say they don't need research because the program works |
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Term
| Because Minkowski was broadly informed, went to med school, etc., he was able to help what disease? |
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Definition
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Term
| published reports of the past reveal what? |
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Definition
| what's already known about your topic and research methods of how others got to their answers and they provide "how-to" models for your study |
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Term
| How can you stand on the shoulders of giants? |
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Definition
| read scientific peer reviewed journals or do a replication of previous research |
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Term
| what are two types of research replications? |
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Definition
| direct replication and systematic replication |
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Term
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Definition
| exact copy of previous study - this will verify (especially when limited data is available |
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Term
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Definition
| copy a previous study and add/change one feature |
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Term
| Why would someone choose to do a systematic replication? |
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Definition
| test a new type of subject, apply an IV to a new problem, or correct a weakness of a previous study |
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Term
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Definition
some other factor that could've caused the results
EG: are dogs color blind? - brightness of colors, or just colors? |
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Term
| What makes a good research question? |
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Definition
| underlying idea is testable, answers are already known, answer is not ridiculous to consider in light of what we already know, and you can figure out how to measure by operationally defining the variables |
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Term
| what does it mean that a good research question's underlying idea is testable? |
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Definition
| observation is possible, there's more than 1 possible conclusion, you can say in advance what evidence will support or show that the idea is wrong |
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Term
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Definition
| variable defined so that any 2 people can recognize it in the same way |
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Term
| what are two kinds of data? |
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Definition
qualitative: expressed as words
quantitative: expressed as numbers |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| what is the goal of our project? |
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Definition
| summarize each individual's performance in ONE NUMBER |
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Term
| what are the advantages of using numbers? |
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Definition
| reveal patterns in observations, descriptive statistics, and being able to share what we learn |
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Term
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Definition
math is used to summarize many numbers
EG: average |
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Term
| what is the standard format for a write up? |
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Definition
| APA using quantitative data |
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Term
| what are the three scales of measurement? |
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Definition
| nominal, ratio, and ordinal |
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Term
| what type of scale deals with categories, describes characteristics of a thing, allows judgement of different (NOT better or worse or more or less), only math possible? |
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Definition
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Term
| the problem with nominal measurement? |
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Definition
each observation recorded in WORDS
EG: male or female |
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Term
| what is the goal of nominal scales? |
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Definition
| each observation is recorded using numbers |
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Term
| which scale is always preferred, describes each observation in physical units, has an objective basis for judging more/less or better/worse, and ALL math is possible? |
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Definition
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Term
| which scale has categories that are ordered along the same dimension and can use a median, but not a mean? |
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Definition
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Term
| what are the two features of good measurement? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| obtains info the same way every time it's used (operational definitions and ratio scales - clearest about what you're watching for) |
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Term
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Definition
| measures what it's supposed to measure (starts with common sense) |
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Term
| an experiment is a comparison of what? |
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Definition
| behavior under different conditions |
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Term
| Manipulating the IV makes what possible? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who decides who experiences what level of the IV? |
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Definition
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Term
| participants start the study the same, and are treated different ONLY in terms of what? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the simplest way to manipulate the IV? |
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Definition
| only have one IV - 2 levels |
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Term
| What are the 3 types of comparison? |
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Definition
| presence v. absence, amount, and type |
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Term
| in presence v. absence, which is the experimental group? |
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Definition
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Term
| in presence v. absence, which is the control group? |
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Definition
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Term
| What does presence v. absence tell us? |
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Definition
| Does the IV have an effect (compared to doing nothing) |
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Term
| What does the amount of the IV tell us? |
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Definition
| does the amount of change in the DV depend on the amount in the IV? |
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Term
| What does the type of version of the IV tell us? |
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Definition
| do different versions of the IV have on the DV? |
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Term
| what 3 actions will could take to vary the levels of the IV? |
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Definition
| 1. real event manipulation, 2. instructional manipulation, or 3. individual differences manipulation |
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Term
| what is real event manipulation? |
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Definition
| actually create different levels of the IV |
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Term
| Real manipulation is always preferred, but not always possible, practical, or ethical. give examples of these |
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Definition
| possible: gender, practical: wealth, ethical: danger |
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Term
| what is instructional manipulation? |
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Definition
words create the "illusion of a manipulation"
ie: hypothetical scenarios, deception
EG: plane crash example |
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Term
| what is an individual differences manipulation? |
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Definition
compare people who already differ in some way
- not a real experiment (correlation)
- you don't device who gets what level of the IV and pre-existing groups can differ but not due to the IV |
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Term
| How do you verify the IV? |
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Definition
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Term
| When you are doing a manipulation check, what two questions should you ask? |
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Definition
1) Did you deliver the IV as planned? (measure the IV and see what the experiment did).
2) What the IV actually experienced by subjects as you hoped? (measure some sign - other than the DV- that operates as expected) |
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Term
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Definition
| different individuals have different scores |
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Term
| when comparing groups, what two types of variance are you looking for? |
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Definition
| Primary variance and error variance |
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Term
| what is primary variance? |
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Definition
| score differences caused by the IV |
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Term
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Definition
| score differences caused by something other than the IV |
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Term
| what makes something reliable? |
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Definition
| operational definition can be used in the same way every time it's used (observable and countable) |
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Term
| what makes something valid? |
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Definition
| operational definition measures the thing it's supposed to measure |
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Term
| how can an experiment be valid? |
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Definition
| externally valid and internally valid |
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Term
| what is external validity? |
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Definition
| the extent to which the results inform us (are "true") about the world outside of the experiment |
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Term
| when would external validity be harmed? |
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Definition
| if you study the wrong kind of individual or if you set up labor situations that trigger "unnatural" behavior |
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Term
| How can you check external validity? |
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Definition
1) Replicate the study (finding new subjects, situations, and times).
2) Check the predictiveness of the results (compare to real world problems - test lab drugs in a lab, compare with pharmacy tests, arrests, and addicts) |
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Term
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Definition
experiment looks like the everyday situation it is meant to tell us about
EG: Stanford prison experiment |
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Term
| Results cannot be externally valid unless they are first _____________. |
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Definition
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Term
| What is internal validity? |
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Definition
| In the experiment, the extent to which the IV ad only the IV could have affected the DV? |
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Term
| What two types of error variance are included with internal validity? |
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Definition
| unsystematic error variance and systematic error variance |
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Term
| what is systematic error variance? |
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Definition
| affects different groups differently - CAN affect our view of how the IV works |
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Term
| what is unsystematic error variance? |
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Definition
| Affects all groups (conditions) the same way - doesn't change out view of how the IV works |
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Term
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Definition
| factor that causes systematic error variance |
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Term
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Definition
| factor that causes systematic error variance |
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Term
| what is a threat to internal validity? |
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Definition
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Term
| what can make an effective IV seem ineffective and an ineffective IV seem effective? |
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Definition
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