Shared Flashcard Set

Details

Pscyh 301
Dr. Cooper - Iowa State University
69
Psychology
Undergraduate 3
01/24/2014

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
Naturalistic Observation
Definition
researcher simply observes and describes behavior (ex jane goodall)

best use: to answer questions not involving the relationship between variables
Term
Corellational Approach
Definition
a reserach technique in which the researcher determines relationship between variables without manipulating them
Term
independent Variable
Definition
The variable in an experiment for which the researcher chooses values
Term
Dependent Variable
Definition
the variable the researcher measures to determine the effects of the IV
Term
Between Subjects Design
Definition
A research design in which each subject is assigned to only ONE level of the IV
Term
Within Subjects Design
Definition
A research design in which each subject is assigned to ALL levels of the IV
Term
Advantage of experimental approach (vs quasi & nat. observational)
Definition
In contrast to all other research techniques, an experiment allows the researcher to infer a CAUSAL relationship between IV and DV
Term
Experiment
Definition
A research study that has the following criteria:

1. random assignment
2. researcher manipulates the IV
Term
Random selection
Definition
Occurs when every member of the population to which we would like to generalize the results has an equally likely chance to participate in the research
Term
random assignment
Definition
once the participants for the experiment have been chosen, random assignment occurs where each participant has an equally likely chance to be assigned to each IV level in a between subjects design, or to each treatment order in a within subjects design
Term
Quasi-experiments:
Definition
A research technique in which the researcher manipulates the IV but which FAILS to have random assignment
Term
Investigation
Definition
a research technique that does NOT allow the researcher to infer causation
Term
Circumstances (3) when an experiment CANNOT be done
Definition
1. Difficult or impossible to manipulate the IV

2. Might be unethical to manipulate the IV

3. Subjects cannot be randomly assigned
Term
Levels of the independent variable
Definition
the specific values of the IV the researcher chooses to use in the study
Term
Theory
Definition
an explanation for a phenomenon that can be falsified and that involves entities that cannot be directly observed
Term
Hypothesis
Definition
A tentative statement about the possible relationship between observable variables
Term
when is the median a more useful descriptive statistic of a distribution?
Definition
When the distribution is skewed
Term
formula for the sum of squares:
Definition
SS=∑(X-XBar)²
Term
Affirming the Consequent
Definition
if a then b, b therefore a

ex: if you brush your teeth, orange juice tastes gross. orange juice tastes gross, therefore you must have brushed your teeth.

THIS IS A FALLACY. The orange juice can just taste gross.
Term
Frequency Distribution
Definition
a graph showing the number of times each score occurred in a data set
Term
Normal Distribution
Definition
a symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution
Term
Positively skewed distribution
Definition
a distribution with a few extreme high scores (remember: Frequency(Y-axis) vs score: (x-axis)
Term
negatively skewed distribution
Definition
a distribution with a few extreme low scores (remember: frequency= Y axis, score= x axis)
Term
what do standardized scores allow, and what is the formula for it?
Definition
S= √[ (X-Xbar)² /  (N-1)] Allows comparisons to be made between scores measured on different scales by placing all scores on a common scale
Term
when do we use a correlational approach?
Definition
1. When manipulating the variables is difficult or impossible

2. " would be unethical
Term
Properties (4) of scales of measurement
Definition
Identity- Identity occurs when different entities receive different scores

Magnitude: occurs when the ordering of the values reflects the ordering of the trait being measured

equal intervals: occurs when a difference of 1 on the scale means the SAME AMOUNT everywhere on the scale

Absolute zero: occurs when a score of zero indicates complete absence of the trait being measured
Term
the falsifiability criterion for theroies
Definition

For a theory to be useful, it must be able to generate predictions - ie some hypothetical facts that the theory is unable to explain 

 

(in other words, it must be theoretically possible to falsify)

Term
modus ponens
Definition
" If P implies Q and P is true, then Q is true"


Valid form of argument but not useful to science because it assumes theory is true
Term
affirming the consequent
Definition
"If p is true, q is true. Q is true
Therefore, p is true"


Invalid form of argument because a correct prediction does not prove the theory to be true (it is logically impossible to prove a theory true)
Term
modus tollens
Definition
"If p is true, then q is true

Q is not true, Therefore, p is not true"


Both valid and useful to science because it can be used to prove theories false
Term
causation
Definition
A causal relationship exists between two variables if a change in one results in a change in the other
Term
random selection
Definition
Occurs when every member of the population to which we would like to generalize the results has an equally likely chance to participate in the research
Term
scales of measurement (4)
Definition

-nominal

-ordinal 

-interval

-ratio

Term
Scale of measurement: nominal (properties)
Definition
nominal scales have only the identity property

NO ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS ARE MEANINGFUL TO NOMINAL SCALES

(ex. Football jersey numbers)
Term
scale of measurement: ordinal (properties)
Definition
Has only the Identity AND Magnitude properties

NO ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS ARE MEANINGFUL TO ORDINAL SCALES

(ex. sports team rankings)
Term
Scale of measurement: Interval
(properties)
Definition
Has identity, magnitude, and equal interval properties

Addition/subtraction are meaningful, but multiplication/division are not

(ex. Fahrenheit and Celsius scales)
Term
Scale of measurement: ratio
(properties)
Definition
has identity, magnitude, equal interval and absolute zero properties

All arithmetic operations are meaningful

(ex. weight, #correct on a test)
Term
Advantages (2) of within-subj designs:
Definition
1. Allows the use of fewer subjects to obtain the same number of observations

2. Allows for greater statistical power than between subjects design
*because of these advantages, it is always best to use a WSD when possible
Term
problems (3) of within-subj designs:
Definition
practice effects (

carry over effects

sensitization effects
Term
what is a sensitization effect and how do we design to negate it?
Definition
occur when the subject realizes what the manipulations are in a study, and this awareness causes the subject to change behavior

negate by using between-subjects design
Term
what is a carry-over effect and how do we design to negate it?
Definition
occur when the effects of one treatment persist when another treatment is induced

negate by using between-subjects design
Term
Two methods of counter balancing:
Definition
1. Use all possible treatment orders (for 4 or fewer treatments)

2. Use a latin square (for 4 or more treatments)
Term
internal validity
Definition
The extent to which your research provides a valid test of the relationship between the IV and the DV
Term
alpha
Definition
The probability of making a Type I Error given that our experiment found an effect of the IV on the DV
Term
beta
Definition
The probability of making a Type II Error given that our experiment failed to find an effect of the IV on the DV
Term
statistical power (and why do we want it)
Definition
The probability that the experiment will find an effect of the IV on the DV if an effect exists

we want it because LOWERS the probability of type II errors
Term
factors (5) determining statistical power, and their relationships to that power
Definition

1. Alpha level (bigger = more power, but +p(type 1 error)

 

2. Effect size (bigger = +power)

 

3. Variability in the DV (lower = +power)

 

4. Sample size (bigger = +power)

 

5. Correlation between the IV levels (more[+ or -]) = +power)

Term
ways (3)to VALIDLY increase statistical power:
Definition

1. Choose IV levels that will maximize effect size (500mg and 501mg of a substance would be shit IV levels. Do 0mg and 500mg instead)

 

2.Try to lower the variability in the DV (make sure all conditions are as close to the same in the experiment across the population) (often lowers generalizability)

 

3. increase sample size (best choice)

Term
Type I error -
Definition
Finding an effect of the IV on the DV when in reality no such effect exists
Term
type II error -
Definition
Failing to find an effect of the IV on the DV when in reality an effect DOES exist
Term
factors (2) that can increase your chances of type II errors:
Definition
1. Nuisance Variables (anything other than the IV which affects the DV. Not really a big problem)


2. Floor and ceiling effects (ex. super easy or super hard test)
Term
Narrow Range of the IV
Definition
occurs when levels of the IV are so similar that their effects on the DV cannot be distinuished
Term
Can't prove null hypothesis
Definition
it's impossible to PROVE the IV has no effect on DV.
Term
Factors producing type I errors:
Definition
1. Regression to the mean
2. Confounds
Term
regression to the mean:
Definition

refers to the tendency for extreme values of a variable to fall closer to the group mean when retested

 

(a guy who ran his best time ever will almost certainly have a more average race next)

Term
control group (and why do we use them)
Definition
a group of subjects in a between subjects design that receives a treatment we know is ineffective at changing the DV

Makes sure effects are not due to regression to the mean
Term
types of counfounds (2) and solutions:
Definition
1) Counfounds due to subject assignment (nonrandom assignment) (probability of this =alpha)

2) Confounds due to manipulation of the IV (when IV has more effects than anticipated)~Surprise! Dynamite explodes, so juggling more sticks DOES increase depression
Term
nuisance variable
Definition
anything other than the IV that can affect the DV
Term
floor and ceiling effects
Definition
occur when the values of the DV are so low (floor) or so high (ceiling) that they are unlikely to be affected by the IV
Term
confound
Definition

anything that other than the IV that has an effect on the DV (nuisance variable) which varies NON-RANDOMLY with the IV

 

(IV goes up, this variable always goes up, or always goes down. et v v)

Term
random factor
Definition
an IV whose levels were chosen randomly from a population of possible values
Term
fixed factor
Definition
an IV whose levels were chosen NON RANDOMLY
Term
demand characteristics
Definition
Aspects of a study that indicate to subjects how they are expected to respond
Term
Rosenthal effect
Definition
A demand characteristic that occurs when subjects change their behavior due to UNINTENTIONAL CUES FROM THE RESEARCHER
Term
placebo effect
Definition
a demand characteristic that occurs when subjects change their behavior as a result of the EXPECTATION THAT CHANGE SHOULD OCCUR
Term
hawthorne effect
Definition
a demand characteristic that occurs when subjects change their behavior BECAUSE THEY KNOW THEY ARE BEING OBSERVED
Term
How to overcome placebo effects?
Definition
Single blind or double blind study
Term
how to overcome rosenthal effects?
Definition
Double blind study
Term
Novelty effect
Definition
occurs when the DV is influenced by the IV ONLY BECAUSE the IV IS SOMETHING NEW

(christmas lights on taxi cars reducing collisions with the taxi, for example)
Supporting users have an ad free experience!