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Praxis PLT Terms
The glossary terms from the ETS tutorial of the Praxis PLT. Test code 0542
129
Education
Professional
07/22/2011

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Term
Ability grouping
Definition
The process of placing students of similar abilities into groups and attempting to match instruction to the needs of these groups
Term
Accomodation
Definition
Responding to a new object or event by either modifying an existing scheme or forming a new one
Term
Accountability
Definition
Mandated obligation of teachers and other school personnel to accept responsibility for students' performance on high-stakes assessments
Term
Achievement tests
Definition
standardized tests measuring how much students have learned in a given content area.
Term
Action research
Definition
research conducted by teachers and other sschool personnel to address issues and problems in their own schools or classrooms.
Term
Active listening
Definition
A technique in which the listener paraphrases the other person's message and directly mentions the feelings that underlie the message.
Term
Advance organizer
Definition
An introduction to a lesson that provides an overall organizational scheme for the lesson.
Term
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA)
Definition
Legilsation in the US that extends civil rights protetion of persons with disabilities to private-sector employment, all public services, public acommodations, transportation, and telecommunication including physical accessibility and the removal of barriers to hotels restaurants, grocery stores, and parks if that can be accomplished without great diffculty or expense
Term
Analytic scoring
Definition
Scoring a student's performance on an assessment by evaluating various aspects of it separately
Term
Anecdotal records
Definition
Narrative accounts of observed student behavior or performance.
Term
Antecedent stimulus
Definition
Stimulus that increases the likelihood that particular response will follow.
Term
Applied behavior analysis (ABA)
Definition
Systematic application of stimulus-response principles to address a chronic behavior problem
Term
Aptitude tests
Definition
Standardized tests designed to predict the potential for future learning and measure general abilities developed over long periods of time.
Term
Assertive discipline
Definition
An approach to classroom managment that promotes a clear and firm response style with students
Term
Assessment
Definition
Process of observing a sample of a student's behavior and drawing inferences about the student's knowledge and abilities.
Term
Assimilation
Definition
Responding to and possibly interpreting a new event in a way that is consistent with an existing scheme.
Term
Attributions
Definition
Personally constructed causal explanations for a success or failure.
Term
Attribution Theory
Definition
Theoretical perspective focusing on people's explanations concerning the causes of events that befall them, as well as on the behaviors that result from such explanations.
Term
Authentic activity
Definition
An approach to instruction similar to one studenst might encounter in the outside world.
Term
Autonomy
Definition
Basic need to control the course of one's own life.
Term
Backward design
Definition
An approach to instructional planning in which a teacher first determines the desired end result (i.e., what knowledge and skills students should acquire) and then identifies appropriate asessments and instructional strategies.
Term
Behaviorism
Definition
Theoretical perspective in which learning and behavior are described and explained in terms of stimulus-response relationships, and motivation is often the result of deficit-based drives.
Term
Belongingness
Definition
General sense that one is an important and valued member of the classroom.
Term
Bloom's taxonomy
Definition
A taxonomy of six cognitive processes, varying in complexity, that lessons might be designed to foster.
Term
Central tendency
Definition
Typical score for a group of scores.
Term
Classical conditioning
Definition
Form of learning in which a new, involuntary response is acquired as a result of two stimuli being presented at the same time.
Term
Cognitive apprenticeship
Definition
Mentorship in which a teacher and a student work together on a challenging task and the teacher gives guidance about how to think about the task.
Term
Cognitive dissonance
Definition
Feeling of mental discomfort caused by new information that conflicts with current knowledge or beliefs.
Term
Cognitive modeling
Definition
Demonstrating how to think about as well as how to do a task.
Term
Cognitive style
Definition
Characteristic way in which a learner tends to think about a task and process new information; typically comes into play automatically rather than bychoice.
Term
Collective self-efficacy
Definition
Shared belief of members of a group that they can be successful when they work together on a task.
Term
Competence
Definition
Basic need to be effective in dealing with the environment.
Term
Concept map
Definition
Diagram of concepts and their interrelationships; used to enhance learning and memory of a topic.
Term
Conceptual change
Definition
Revision of one's understanding of a topic in response to new information
Term
Concrete operations stage
Definition
Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, in which adult-like logic appears but is limited to concrete reality.
Term
Conditioned response (CR)
Definition
Response that begins to be elicited by a particular stimulus through classical conditioning.
Term
Conditioned stimuli (CS)
Definition
Stimulus that begins to elicit a particular repsonse through classical conditioning.
Term
Constructivism
Definition
Theoretical perspective proposing that learners construct (rather than absorb) a body of knowlege from their experiences--knowledge that may or may not be an accurate representation of external reality.
Term
Content validity
Definition
Extent to which an assessment includes a representative sample of tasks within the domain being assessed.
Term
Contingency
Definition
Situation in which one event (e.g. reinforcement) happens only after another event (e.g., a spcific response) has already occurred.
Term
Contingency contract
Definition
Formal agreement between teacher and student that identifies behaviors the student will exhibit and the reinforcers that will follow.
Term
Convergent questions
Definition
Questions that have a single correct answer.
Term
Convergent thinking
Definition
The process of pulling several pieces of information together to draw a conclusion or solve a problem.
Term
Cooperative learning
Definition
Approach to instruction in which students owrk with a small group of peers to achieve a common goal and help one another learn.
Term
Creative thinking
Definition
New and original behavior that yeilds a produtive adn culturally appropriate result.
Term
Criterion-referenced score
Definition
Assessment score that specifically indicates what a stduent knows or can do
Term
Critical thinking
Definition
The process of evaluating the accuracy and worth of information and lines of reasoning.
Term
Crystallized intelligence
Definition
Knowledge and skills accumulated from prior experience, schooling, and culture.
Term
Cueing
Definition
Use of simple signals to indicate that certain behavior is desired or that certain behavior should stop.
Term
Cultural bias
Definition
Extent to which assessment tasks either offend or unfairly penalize some students because of their ethnicity, gender, or socioeconomic status.
Term
Cultural mismatch
Definition
Situation in which a child's home culture and the school culture hold conflicting expectations for the child's behavior.
Term
Curricular web
Definition
Visual representation of organized content and useful for instructional planning as it identifies how concepts are connected.
Term
Declarative knowledge
Definition
Knowledge related to "what is"--that is, to the nature of how things are, were, or will be.
Term
Deductive reasoning
Definition
Process of drawing a logical inference about something that must be true, given other information that has already been presented as true.
Term
Developmental milestone
Definition
Appearance ofa new, developmentally more advanced behavior.
Term
Diagnostic assessment
Definition
Highly specialized, comprehensive and detailed procedures used to uncover persistent or recurring learning difficulties that require specially prepared diagnostic tests as well as various observational techniques.
Term
Differentiated instruction
Definition
Practice of individualizing instructional methods, and possibly also individualizing specific content and instructional goals, to align with each student's existing knowledge, skills, and needs.
Term
Direct instruction
Definition
Approach to instruction that uses a variety of techniques in a fairly structured manner to promote learning of basic skills.
Term
Discovery learning
Definition
Approach to instruction in which students develop an understanding of a topic through firsthand interaction with the environment.
Term
Disequilibrium
Definition
Inability to explain new events with existing schemes; tends to be accompanied by a sense of discomfort.
Term
Distributed intelligence
Definition
Idea that people act more "intelligently" when they have physical, symbolic, or social assistance.
Term
Divergent questions
Definition
Questions that have no single correct answer.
Term
Divergent thinking
Definition
The process of mentally moving in a variety of directions from a single idea.
Term
Dynamic assessment
Definition
Systematic examination of how easily a student can acquire new knowledge or skills, perhaps with an adult's assistance.
Term
Elaboration
Definition
Cognitive process in which learners embellish on new information based on what they already know.
Term
Encoding
Definition
Changing the format of information being stored in memory in order to remember it more easily.
Term
Entity view of intelligence
Definition
Belief that intelligence is a "thing" that isrelatively permanent and unchangeable.
Term
Equilibrium
Definition
State of being able to explain new events with existing schemes.
Term
Expectancy-value theory
Definition
Theoretical perspective propsing that human motivation is a fucntion of two beliefs: that once can succeed in an activity and that there are direct or indirect benefits in performing the activity.
Term
Expository instruction
Definition
Approach to instruction in which information is presented in more ore les the same form in which students are expected to learn it.
Term
Fluid intelligence
Definition
Ability to acquire knowledge quickly and adapt effectively to new situations
Term
Formal assessment
Definition
Preplanned, systematic attempt to ascertain what students have learned.
Term
Formal operations stage
Definition
Piaget's fourth and final stage of cognitive development, in which logical reasoning processes are applied to abstract ideas as well as to concrete objects, and more sophisticated scientific and mathematical reasoning processes emerge.
Term
Formative evaluation
Definition
Evaluation conducted before or during instruction to facilitate instructional and planning and enhance students' learning.
Term
Functional analysis
Definition
Examination of inappropriate behavior and its antecedents and consequences to determine one or more purposes that the behavior might serve for the learner.
Term
Goal theory
Definition
Theoretical perspective that portrays human motivation as being directed toward particular goals; the nature of these goals determines the specific ways in which people think and behave.
Term
Guided participation
Definition
A child's performance, with guidance and support, of an activity in the adult world.
Term
High-stakes testing
Definition
Practice of using students' performance on a single assessment instrument to make major decisions about students or school personnel.
Term
Higher-level cognitive process
Definition
A cognitive process that involves going well beyond information specifically learned (e.g., by analyzing, applying, or evaluating it).
Term
Higher-level question
Definition
Question that requires students to do something new with something they've learned
Term
Holistic scoring
Definition
Summarizing a student's performance on an assessment with a single score.
Term
Humanism
Definition
Philosophical perspective in which people are seen as having tremendous potential for psychological growth and as continually striving to fulfill that potential.
Term
I-messages
Definition
A form of communication in which a person directly states what another person is doing, its effect, and how he or she feels about it.
Term
Incremental view of intelligence
Definition
Belief that intelligence can improve with effort and practice.
Term
Individual constructivism
Definition
Theoretical perspective that focuses on how people, as individuals, construct meaning from the events around them.
Term
Inductive reasoning
Definition
Collecting data to draw a conclusion that may or may not be true.
Term
Information processing theory
Definition
Theoretical perspective that focuses on how learners mentally think about new information and evnts and how such processes change with development.
Term
Learned helplessness
Definition
General, fairly pervasive belief that one is incapable of accomplishing tasks and has little or no control over the environment.
Term
Locus of causality
Definition
The location--internal or external--of the cause of behavior.
Term
Lower-level question
Definition
Question that requires students to express what they've learned in essentially the same form as they learned it.
Term
Mastery orientation
Definition
General, fairly pervasive belief that one is capable of accomplishing challenging tasks.
Term
Meaningful learning
Definition
Cognitive process in which learners relate new information to things they already know.
Term
Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Definition
A theory that claims people are "intelligent" in many different areas, including cognitive, emotional, and social domains.
Term
Need for autonomy
Definition
Basic need for independence
Term
Need for arousal
Definition
Ongoing need for either physical or cognitive stimulation.
Term
Need for competence
Definition
Basic need to believe that one can deal effectively with the overall envrionment.
Term
Need for relatedness
Definition
Basic need to feel socially connected to others and to secure others' love and respect.
Term
Need for self-determination
Definition
Basic need to believe that one has some autonomy and control regarding the course of one's life.
Term
Negative reinforcement
Definition
Phenomenon in which a response increases as a result of the removal of a stimulus.
Term
Norm-referenced score
Definition
Assessment score that indicates how a student's performance on an assessment compares with the average performance of others.
Term
Operant conditioning
Definition
Form of learning in which a response increases in frequency as a result of its being followed by reinforcement.
Term
Pedagogical content knowledge
Definition
Knowledge about effective methods of teaching a specific content area.
Term
Performance-approach goal
Definition
Desire to look good and receive favorable judgments from others.
Term
Performance assessment
Definition
Assessment in which students demonstrate their knowledge and skills in a nonwritten fashion.
Term
Performance-avoidance goal
Definition
Desire not to look bad or receive unfavorable judgments from others.
Term
Positive behavioral support (PBS)
Definition
Systematic intervention thataddresses chronic misbehaviors by (a) identifying the purposes those behaviors might serve for a student and (b) providing more appropriate ways for a student to achieve the same ends.
Term
Positive psychology
Definition
Theoretical perspective that portrays people as having many unique qualties that propel them to egnage in productive, worthwhile activities; it shares early humanists; belief that people strive to fulfill their portential but also shares contemporary psychologists; belief that theories of motivation must be research-based.
Term
Positive reinforcement
Definition
Phenomenon in which a response increases as a result of the presentation of a stimulus.
Term
Practicality
Definition
Extent to which an assessment instrument or procedure is inexpensive and easy to use and takes only a small amount of time to administer and score.
Term
Preoperational stage
Definition
Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, in which children can think about objects beyond their immediate view but do not yet reason in logical, adult-like ways.
Term
Prior knowledge activation
Definition
Process of reminding learners of things they have already learned relative to a new topic.
Term
Reciprocal teaching
Definition
Approach to teaching reading and listening comprehension in which students take turns asking teacher-like questions of classmates.
Term
Reliability
Definition
Extent to which an assessment instrument yields consitent information about the knowledge, skills, or characteristics being assessed.
Term
Rote learning
Definition
Learning information in a relatively uninterpreted form, without making sense of it or attaching much meaning to it.
Term
Scaffolding
Definition
Support mechanism that helps a learner successfully perform a task within his or her zone of proximal development.
Term
Self-determination theory
Definition
Theoretical perspective proposing that human beings have a basic need for autonomy about the courses that their lives take; it further proposes that humans also have basic needs to feel competent and to have close, affectionate relationships with others.
Term
Self-efficacy
Definition
Belief that one is capable of executing certain behaviors or reaching certain goals.
Term
Sensorimotor stage
Definition
Piaget's first stage of cognitive development, in which schemes are based largely on behaviors and perceptions.
Term
Sensory register
Definition
Component of memory that holds incoming information in an unanalyzed form for a ver brief time.
Term
Social learning theory
Definition
Theoretical perspective in which learning by ovserving others is the focus of study. Initially, this perspective focused largely on stimulus-response relationships. More recently, it has come to incorporate cognitive processes as well, hence its alternative name social cognitive theory.
Term
Social constructivism
Definition
Theoretical perspective that focuses on people's collective efforts to impose meaning on the world.
Term
Social negotiation
Definition
Aspect of learning process that relies on collaboration with others to co-construct meaning while respecting different perspectives.
Term
Summative evaluation
Definition
Evaluation conducted after instruction to assess student' final achievement.
Term
Task analysis
Definition
The process of identifying specific knowledge, behaviors, or cognitive processes necessary to master a particular subject area or skill.
Term
Triarchic theory of intelligence
Definition
View of intelligence; proponents argue that that intelligent behavior arises from a balance between analytical, creative, and practical abilities.
Term
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Definition
Response that is elicited by a particular stimulus without prior learning.
Term
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Definition
Stimulus that elicits a particular response without prior learning.
Term
Validity
Definition
Extent to which an assessment instrument actually measures what it is intended to measure and allows appropriate inferences about the characteristic or ability in question.
Term
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
Definition
Range of tasks that a child can perform with the help and guidance of others but cannot yet perform independently.
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