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| thought of congress as the center of policymaking in the US |
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| sets the standards of eligibility for membership in Congress including age( e.g. Representatives must be at least 25 and senators at least 30 years old when they are elected) |
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*does not offer descriptive representation
*does offer substantive representation |
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| almost always win elections |
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| Advertising credit claiming and position taking |
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| help congressmen win re-election |
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| (i.e. taking care of constituent's problems) and pork barrel allow incumbents to claim credit for helping constituents |
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| refers to unneccesary federal grants and contracts congressmen bring to their districts in order to win votes from their constituents |
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| What happens during midterm elections |
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| the Party of the President usually loses seats in the Congress A significant exception to this rule occurred in 2002 when the Republicans gained seats in both Houses |
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| which has no counterpart in the Senate has the crucial role of placing bills on the calendar allotting time for debate and specifying permissable amendments |
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| controls the majority of the seats in each chamber and also controls the composition of all committees and subcommittees within the chamber |
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| Without a Rules Committee of its own |
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| the Senate relies on party leaders to schedule bills |
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| is a tradition, unique to the Senate, according to which individual Senators may kill a bill by refusing to end debate on it unless 2/3rds of their collegues vote for cloture. which stops debate and forces the whole chamber to vote on the issue |
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| Senators and Representatives |
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| sometimes join caucuses to mobilize votes press the regular committees to hold hearings or pass legislation on topics they think arent being adequately addressed by the formal congressional organization |
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| The most important task for Congress to do next to legislating |
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| oversight: which refers to congressional hearings questioning members of the executive branch on how a law is being carried out. |
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| There are two theories of representation: |
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| (1)trusteeship-the representative uses his own judgement to determine what's best for his constituents (2) instructed delegate-the representative does only what his constituents want him to do. |
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| When the President enjoys high public approval, congressmen have political cover to pass bills their constituents might not favor. |
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| If the constituents complain a Representtive or Senator can always claim he had to go along with the President's mandate. |
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| operate more by persuading than commanding people |
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| Framers thought of President as: |
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| a servant of Congress or chief administrator |
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| Presidents are more like: |
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| chief legislators than chief administrators |
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| one cause of the growth in Presidential power |
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| Another cause of growth in Presidential power: |
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| the role of the US as a world superpower |
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| use the media to appeal directly to the people to overcome opposition to legislative agendas in Congress |
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| Cabinet, Executive Office of the President and White House staff |
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| helps the President run the government |
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| limited Presidents to two terms in office |
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| When are presidents most effective |
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| the notion that the President's legislative agenda is backed by the vast majority of Americans although usually false is sometimes also effective |
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| the sole organ of the nation in dealing with foreign states |
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| Although treaties can be negotiated by the President must be approved by the Senate.... |
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| the President can terminate a treaty or negotiate executive agreements on his own authority |
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| after the vietnam war congress passed this to restrain presidential power by forcing the President to inform Congress of troop deployments. Presidents generally go along with it, every PResident since Nixon has argued that the resolution is unconstitutional |
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| Before the Pendleton Act created the merit based civil service system |
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| most governments employees get their jobs through the patronage system |
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| Weber's rational method, monopolistic or acquisitive model, Garbage can model |
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| The three models of Bureaucracy |
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| bureaucracies function like efficient machines |
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| holds that bureaucrats try to gain as much power as they can |
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| holds that bureaucrats adopt plans of action only when the need arises. |
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| The main job of the federal bureaucracy |
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| to implement and regulate government policies |
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| helps to determine salary wages for every position in the federal bureaucracy |
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| Four divisions in the Federal Bureaucracy |
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| Cabinet departments, the independant regulatory agencies the government corporations, and the independent executive agencies |
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| which prevents civil servants from engaging in partisan politics while on the job; an effort to insure the civil service would not be subject to political pressure. |
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| Bureaucrats play thee main roles |
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| policy implementation, policy administration, and regulation |
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| critics of the bureaucracy argue that this technique is not effective as the incentive approach |
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| Standard Operating procedures (SOP) |
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| informal rules which help bureaucracies to be predictable and regular, but they are often criticized as inflexible red tape |
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| the US judicial system operates on this which a litigant with the standing to sue must bring his or her dispute to court to seek redress of concrete injuries |
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| US Judicial system has three layers with two kinds of jurisdiction |
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| district courts,courts of appeals and Supreme Court; appellate or original |
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| Decisions of the Supreme Court are... |
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| binding on every federal court |
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| Decisions on the individual Court of Appeals |
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| are binding only on district courts within their circuit |
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| Judges serve for on good behavior |
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| Judicial appointments are way for Presidents to |
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| have a lasting influence on the federal government |
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| The most important power the Supreme Court has |
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| THe Supreme Court can influence policy in the US by |
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| choosing to review important cases and allowing less important cases to stand as the Courts of Appeals decided them |
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| The Supreme Court can swing from Liberal to conservative positions over time |
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| as individuals justices die or retire and are replaced by new appointees |
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| The conservative Burger and Rehnquist Courts have |
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| retreared from many of the more liberal decisions of the earlier Warren Court |
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| Three main sources of federal revenue |
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| income tax social security taxes and borrowing |
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| The federal government borrows money by |
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| issuing bonds, which anyone can buy, and which are redeemable for face value plus interest after a period of years. |
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| if revenues exceed expenses |
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| if expenses exceed revenues |
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| is the sum of all annual budget deficits |
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| Our tax code is progressive |
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| which means the wealthy pay a higher percentage of their income in taxes than do the poor |
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| would take more money from the poor than from the rich |
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| refers to exemptions exclusions or deductions which permit taxpayers to keep more of their income and therefore amount to revenue losses for the federal government. |
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| Congress attempted to simplify the tax code |
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| by reducing the number of income brackets and tax loopholes |
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| due in part to the expenses of the Cold War |
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| and in part to the cost of maintaining generous social services |
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| uncontrollable expenditure |
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| an item of spending in the federal budget which is tied by law to standards of automatic eligibility |
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| involves both the executive and the legislative branch but the ultimate power to determine how much the government will tax and spend is in Congress |
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| Before the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 |
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| executive branch agencies sent their budget requests to the Secretary of the Treasury who would forward them directly to congress. |
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| After 1921 the Office of Management and Budget and the President |
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| play a much larger role in the process |
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| helps the president decide which agencies need funding and which have to tighten their belts |
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| Congressional Budget office |
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| the legislative counterpart of the OMB |
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| The Congressional Budget Act of 1974 |
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| was intended to restrain budget growth by forcing Congress to consider the budget as a whole rather than an individual agency requests |
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| If Congress cannot agree on a budget |
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| it keeps the federal government running on the continuing resolution |
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| first President to sign a treaty reducing the number of nuclear weapons |
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| think that strong economy is the key to national success |
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| feel that a strong military is the key |
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| the cabinet department responsible for making foreign policy and negotiating treaties |
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| The president's principal civilian advisor on the military |
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| National Security council |
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| links the President's key foreign and military policy advisors |
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| the true center of power in the United Nations |
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| Five Permanent members of the Security Council |
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| The US, Great Britain, France, Russia, China |
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| Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) |
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| created after WWII to coordinate intelligence gathering abroad, was sharply criticized during the 1970s for domestic spying |
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| involved covert activities staged by the National Security Council |
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| Only Congress can declare War |
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| President can extend diplomatic recognition, negotiate treaties and executive agreements. |
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| Actors on the international stage include |
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| international organizations( the UN) regional organizations(NATO) multinational corporations non governmental organzations, terrorist groups |
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| originally US foreign policy |
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| stated that the US would stay out of European politics and the European should stay out of the Western hemisphere |
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| a US program of grants and loans designed to rebuild Western European countries after WWII |
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| George Kennan's policy of containment |
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| was intended to resist aggression on the part of the communist countries |
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| One result of the containment |
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| the arms race between the US and Soviet Union |
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| Mutually assured destruction |
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| neither side would benefit from launching its missiles first |
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| was designed to avoid confrontations by repairing misunderstandings between the superpowers |
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| President Reagan rejected detente |
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| in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan |
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| Strategic Defense Initiative or Star Wars |
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| a massive space based system of killer satellites proposed by President Reagan to counter Soviet ballistic missiles |
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| the fall of the Berlin Wall and the breakup of the Soviet Union |
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| that Americans won because of Reagan's rearmament program |
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| that the Soviet Union disintegrated on account of Gorbachev's internal reforms |
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| savings from unnecessary military programs would be redirected towards more comprehensive social programs |
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| The post Cold War world is |
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| fairly unstable, and a number of new challenges, including terrorism, free trade, and the environment, require creative responses on the part of policymakers |
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| taxes on imports designed to give competitive advantages to domestic producers by raising the price of imported products. |
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| Today's international economy is |
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| characterized by increasing interdependence |
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| the widening gap between rich and poor countries is due in large part because of this in poor countries. |
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