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| Rely only on our senses, no use of reasoning |
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| Mental reflection or logic, emphasis on the abstract realm |
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| Accept a statement as true – why? Tradition – always accepted it, Came from some authority figure. Could get conflicting things being true. |
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| Science / Scientific Approach |
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Definition
combines elements of the preceeding three
Empiricism
Rationalism
Fideism |
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| A theory of the nature and grounds of knowledge |
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A system of explicit rules and procedures upon which research is based and against which claims for knowledge are evaluated.
What tests must be passed before something is considered true. |
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| specific tools and techniques used in empiricial research (opinion polls, statistics, simulations) |
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1. There is a patter to everything
2. All natural phenomenon have natural causes
3. We can know nature
4. Knowledge is superior to ignorance
5. Knowledge is not self-evident and it must be derived from the empirical world |
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| Flaws in Humans discovery of knowledge |
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Definition
-inaccurate observation
-overgeneralization
-Ecological Fallacy: Generalization Across levels of analysis or social entities-What is true for one need not be true for another. (what is true of society may not be true of the group or of the individual, and vice versa) Measure of a state can support a hypothesis about an individual but it does not prove it.
-Selective Observation
-Deduced information-create info to explain away contradiction
-illogical reasoning
-Mystification of Residuals: Cannot explain something via natural causes so we revert to supernatural forces
-premature closure of inquiry |
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| General methodology of science rules |
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Definition
1. Careful and accurate measurement
2. Empirical tests on the population or a representative sample
3. Less confidence in generalizations across levels of analysis
4. Deduced information is not an acceptable explanation
5. and more... |
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Definition
Heavily throughout the research process.
especially in the:
-rules for classification
-structure of theories (no contradictions)
-forms of deductive and inductive reasoning
-probability sampling
-sampling procedures |
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| Benefits of using the system- |
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Definition
-Promotes systematic instead of haphazard inquiry
-Promotes consistency in knowledge - polar opposites will never be seen as true. |
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| Cannot consider something true unless... |
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| Liability of using the system |
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Definition
| criteria may be wrong and therefore you would be denying something that is actually true or falsely considering something true that is actually false. |
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Definition
Goes up from empirical observation to a high level of abstraction (axiom)
Context of Discovery-Not limited by methodology in discovering relationships. |
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Goes down from a high level of abstraction to empirical observation
Context of Justification – attempts to logically and empirically verify claims to knowledge is limited by methodology (verify your inductive hypothesis using methodology) |
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| Combine logical scenario with selected facts to account for an event. Evidence is neither complete or representative and other plausible interpretations can be made. |
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| Establishing Empirical Covariation |
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Definition
| Accounting for variation in one variable by showing corresponding variation in another variable. Covariation alone does not constitute causality. |
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| Placing under general laws |
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Definition
| You have explained if you can place the phenomenon under an established general law. |
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Definition
uses universal law, there are no exceptions
-Universal law (little applicability to human behavior)
-Statement of the conditions under which the law holds true.
-An event to be explaned
-The rules of formal logic |
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| Probabilistic explanation |
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Definition
probability statement/law (when economy is bad, incumbent president loses 75% of the time)
Require studying the population or a representative sample |
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Definition
| Circular: (theory in the center guiding our work) Problem – hypothesis – research design (cross into observation) – measurement – data collection –(cross back into abstraction)- data analysis – generalization – beginning |
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