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Definition
1. Text: an abstraction representing an object, a property of an object or a certain phenomenon
2. An abstraction referring to some empirical phenomenon
3. A symbol to which we assign numbers |
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Definition
i. Classification – group observations into categories on the basis of common attributes (squirrel, moose)
ii. Basis for communication – manipulate symbols to convey an empirical phenomenon.
iii. Building Block in Theory – First step in analysis
iv. A point of view – way of looking at the world |
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Stays in the realm of abstraction. Dictionary Definitions.
Define a concept in terms of another concept. |
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Crosses into realm of empirical observation
A set of measurement procedures which if performed tell us whether or not something exists or the degree to which it exists
May not be necessary for primitive concepts (water) but necessary for complex things. |
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| Characteristics of a good conceptual definition |
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Definition
1. Never circular – never repeat the concept in the definition
2. Stated positively – tell us what is, not what isn’t
3. Inclusive – include all of what it is
4. State it in clear terms – avoid vague terms and those with many meanings |
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| Properties of Operational Definitions |
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Definition
No absolute standard for establishing validity.
Two types: Indicator and Measure |
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| Measure Operational Definitions |
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Definition
Direct Observation, includes all of the concept.
More accurate than indicators. |
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| Indicator Operational Definition |
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Definition
Lacks either direct observation or including all of the concept.
less accurate than measure defs. |
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Definition
Bundled/Multi-dimensional concepts.
EG - Democracy
requires -
• Electoral Equality
• Party Competition
• Minority Rights |
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Definition
Text: Tentative answers to research questions expressed in the form of relationships between independent and dependent variables
Specifies relationship between two or more variables. |
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Definition
1. Can be empirically tested and found to be true or false. (concepts are not true or false, simply labels attached to part of empirical world)
2. First step in linking things together. (ultimately we want to find the causal relationship between phenomenon)
3. Allow us to get outside of ourselves. (Stand on their own merit, one person may have had insight, but not accepted until empirically stands on its own) |
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| Alternative forms of Hypotheses |
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Definition
Universal law (x changes, y always changes)
Probability statement (x changes, y usually changes) |
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Definition
| Specifies the condition under which the hypothesis will hold true. |
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| Properties of relationship (hypothesis tells us what relationship could be) |
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Definition
Strength of Relationship
Direction of Relationship
Nature or form of relationship (linear vs curvilinear).
Examine each in the empirical analysis. |
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| Characteristics of Scientific Hypotheses |
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Definition
Must be falsifiable (no tautological statements)
Must be empirically testable in the real world.
Not value bearing (IS not ought) |
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| Good Hypotheses will have... |
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Definition
Clarity of conceptual and operational definitions.
Specify the exact relationship you are looking for. |
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Definition
| Wide use - inside and outside science |
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| Common elements of Scientific Theory |
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Definition
-Empirical, not normative
-Symbolic construction, designed to replicate reality
-Series of interrelated hypotheses
-Hierarchy among statements |
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Definition
Tells us what to look at
Tells us how things are related
We can use knowledge to predict
deduce an event from an established universal law |
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Definition
Ad Hoc Classification Systems
Taxonomies
Conceptual Frameworks
Theoretical Systems |
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| Ad Hoc Classification Systems |
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Definition
Arbitrary categories constructed in order to organize or summarize empirical observations.
Just Concepts
Few call this theory |
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Definition
System of categories constructed to fit the empirical observations so that definitional relationships among categories can be described.
Think series of concepts - know common attributes of those we categorize. |
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Term
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Definition
Descriptive categories that are systematically placed within a broad structure of explicit and implicit propositions.
Key is the addition of relational statements.
These statements need not be logically related to one another or deduced from higher order statements (axioms) |
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Definition
A system of propositions that are interrelated in a way that permits some to be derived from others.
Now have all the elements - concepts, low order statements, higher order statements. |
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Definition
The most rigorous form of Theoretical System.
Classic Deduction science assumed axioms were used. |
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| Contents of Axiomatic Theory |
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Definition
May be a set of existence statements.
Set of concepts and their definitions.
Set of relational statements (axioms and theorems).
A logical system.
Used to relate all concepts with statements.
and deduce theorems from axioms. |
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Definition
| Untestable states initially assumed to be true. |
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Definition
| Hypotheses/Propositions deduced from axioms and capable of being tested. |
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| Benefits to axiomatic theory |
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Definition
-Careful description of all concepts and relationships.
-Parsimony (have only a few concepts and statements (KISS))
-Coordinated research (different groups work on different theorems)
-By examining internal consistency, see flaws in reasoning. |
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| Flaws of Axiomatic Theory |
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Definition
| It only contains what was in the original axioms. |
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Term
| Popper's Four Tests of Theories |
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Definition
1. Check logical form of statements (Tautology?)
2. Logical comparison of conclusions (Contradictory?)
3. Compare with existing theories (advancement? - Aspin agrees)
4. Empirical Test of Hypothesis |
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Term
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Definition
Improper Deduction
Faulty operational definition (not reliable or not valid)
Improper application of the operational definition (cheating by researchers)
Mistake entering data into computer
Mistake reading the right information by the computer program
Error in the computer program
Improper interpretation of the results |
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Term
| Variable vs Concept (difference) |
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Definition
variable is a type of concept
concepts refer to any and all empirical phenomenon.
Variable refers to any empirical phenomenon that has 2 or more states.
(logical groups of attributes)
(Differing magnitudes)
(Simple exist / non-exist) |
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Definition
| predictor - explanatory variable (Leads to or causes something else) |
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Definition
That which we are trying to explain.
The variable affected by other variables.
Multiple causes for each dependent variable. |
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Definition
variable that can be manipulated (by researcher).
eg. punishment, tax incentive |
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Definition
Can change, but cannot be manipulated.
Weight, gender... |
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Definition
| either or, logical grouping of attributes |
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Definition
both cases you have attribute in differing degrees (siblings)
Continuous can be measured in a variety of units
Discreet cannot be measured beyond its fundamental base unit. |
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