What is a “plant”?

In what two conceptual ways can the answer to this question be approached?

a) By the characteristics they possess. Historically, “plants” included those organisms that possess photosynthesis, cell walls, spores, and a more or less sedentary behavior.

b) By the evolutionary history of life and to use that history to delimit the groups of life, including what we choose to call a “plant.”

What are the three major groups of life currently accepted?

Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya

Name and define the mechanism for the evolution of chloroplasts.

Endosymbiosis - by the engulfment of an ancestral photosynthetic bacterium (probably a cyanobacterium) by an ancestral eukaryotic cell, such that the photosynthetic bacterium continued to live and ultimately multiply inside the eukaryotic cell

Name some chlorophyllous organismal groups that have traditionally been called “plants” but that evolved or acquired chloroplasts independently.

euglenoids, dinoflagellates, and brown algae

Draw a simplified cladogram showing the relative relationships among the green plants (Chlorobionta/Viridiplantae), land plants (embryophytes), vascular plants (tracheophytes), seed plants (spermatophytes), gymnosperms, and angiosperms (flowering plants).

Why are land plants treated as equivalent to “plants” in this book?

Land plants make up a monophyletic group, whereas the photosynthetic eukaryotes as a whole are not monophyletic and, as a group, do not accurately reflect evolutionary history. And, practically, it is land plants that most people are talking about when they refer to “plants.”

List the many ways that plants are important, both in evolution of life on earth and in terms of direct benefits to humans.

Plants were in part responsible for the oxygenation of the earth’s atmosphere, a prerequisite to the evolution of most eukaryotes. Plants are also major primary producers on the land and in some aquatic systems. Thus, most animals are dependent on them. Plants are major components of many communities and ecosystems. Plants are of great direct benefit to people, for food, flavors (spices and herbs), beverages, building materials, fibers (cordage, clothing), numerous extracts, hallucinogens/euphorics, and medicines.

What is systematics and what is its primary emphasis?

A science that includes and encompasses traditional taxonomy, the description, identification, nomenclature, and classification of organisms, and that has as its primary goal the reconstruction of phylogeny, or evolutionary history, of life.

Define biological evolution, describing what is meant both by descent and by modification.

Descent with modification. Descent is the transfer of genetic material (enclosed within a cell, the unit of life) from parent(s) to offspring over time. Modification is a change in the genetic material that is transferred from parent(s) to offspring, such that the genetic material of the offspring is different from that of the parent(s).

What is a lineage?

A set of organisms interconnected through time and space by the transfer of genetic material from parents to offspring.

Name and define the units that undergo evolutionary change.

Populations and species.

A population is a group of individuals of the same species that is usually geographically delimited and that typically have a significant amount of gene exchange. Species are groups of populations that are related to one another by various criteria and that have evolutionarily diverged from other such groups.

What are the two major mechanisms for evolutionary change?

Natural selection and genetic drift.

What is a functional feature that results in increased survival or reproduction called?

An adaptation.

Name and define the four components of taxonomy.

Description, Identification, Nomenclature, Classification

Description is the assignment of features or attributes to a taxon.

Identification is the process of associating an unknown taxon with a known one, or recognizing that the unknown is new to science and warrants formal description and naming.

Nomenclature is the formal naming of taxa according to some standardized system.

Classification is the arrangement of entities (in this case, taxa) into some type of order.

Define character and character state.

Characters are features.

Two or more forms of a character are character states.

Give one example of a character and character state from morphology or from some type of specialized data.

E.g., “leaf shape,” for which possible character states are “elliptic,” “lanceolate,” and “ovate.”

What is a dichotomous key?

A couplet? A lead?

A dichotomous key is an identification device consisting of a series of two contrasting statements.

Each statement is a lead; the pair of leads constitutes a couplet

What is a scientific name?

Formal names, which by convention are translated into the Latin language, determined by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.

Define binomial and indicate what each part of the binomial is called.

Species names, consisting of two names: a genus name and a specific epithet.

What is the difference between rank and taxon?

Ranks are hierarchical groupings, meaning that each rank is inclusive of all other ranks beneath it.

A taxon is a group of organisms typically treated at a given rank.

What is the plural of taxon?

Taxa.

Name the two main ways to classify organisms and describe how they differ.

Phenetic - based on overall similarity.

Phylogenetic - based on evolutionary history.

Define phylogeny and give the name of the branching diagram that represents phylogeny.

Phylogeny, the primary goal of systematics, refers to the evolutionary history of a group of organisms.

Phylogeny is commonly represented in the form of a cladogram (or phylogenetic tree), a branching diagram that conceptually represents the evolutionary pattern of descent.

What does a split, from one lineage to two, represent?

Lineage divergence, the diversification of lineages from one common ancestor.

Name the term for both a preexisting feature and a new feature.

Preexisting feature = ancestral character state.

New feature = derived character state, also called an apomorphy.

What is phylogenetic systematics (cladistics)?

A methodology for inferring the pattern of evolutionary history of a group of organisms, utilizing apomorphies.

1) What is a monophyletic group or clade?

2) A paraphyletic group?

3) A polyphyletic group?

1) A group consisting of a common ancestor plus all (and only all) descendants of that common ancestor.

2) A group consisting of a common ancestor but not all descendants of that common ancestor.

3) A group in which there are two or more separate groups, each with a separate common ancestor.

For what can phylogenetic methods be used?

To devise a system of classification, and to address biogeographic or ecological history, processes of speciation, and adaptive character evolution.

How is systematics the foundation of the biological sciences?

Virtually all fields of biology are dependent on the correct taxonomic determination of a given study organism. Systematic research is the basis for acquiring, cataloging, and retrieving information about life’s diversity.

How can systematics be viewed as unifying the biological sciences?

Systematics may utilize data from all fields of biology. The systematist has an opportunity to understand all aspects of his/her group of interest in an overall synthesis of what is known from all biological specialties, with the goal being to understand the evolutionary history and relationships of the group.

How is systematics of value in conservation biology?

Of what benefit is plant systematics to you?

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What are the apomorphies for

Embryophyta (land plants)?

1) Outer cuticle - aids in protecting tissues from desiccation

2) specialized gametangia (egg and sperm producing organs) that have an outer, protective layer of sterile cells

3) Intercalated diploid phase (sporophyte) in the life cycle, the early, immature component of which is termed the empryo