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Definition
| The study of grasses and sedges. |
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Definition
| A type of gender dimorphism. Having plants with male flowers as well as plants with hermaphroditic flowers. May have evolved from hermaphroditism. |
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Definition
| A type of gender monomorphism. Having separate male and hermaphroditic flowers on the same plant. May have evolved from hermaphroditism. |
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Definition
| Traits in the bird pollination syndrome which deter bee pollination. Important in shaping hummingbird-pollinated flowers. Includes red floral colour, exserted stigmas, and lipless corollas. |
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Term
| Autogamous self-pollination |
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Definition
| Self-pollination within a hermaphroditic flower. Likely to provide reproductive assurance. |
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Definition
| Pollination without the aid of a pollen vector. Only self-pollination is possible. Anthers and stigmas are close together inside a cleistogamous flower. More common when pollinators are scarce. |
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Definition
Penstemon barbatus
A hummingbird-pollinated flower.
[image] |
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Definition
| A pollination syndrome. Open or bowl-shaped flowers, actinomorphic or zygomorphic. Flowers are blue or yellow. There is nectar and pollen, nectar guides, mimicry, and a sweet scent. Nectar is concentrated. Nectar guides direct the bee to the centre of the flower, and may have UV colours. Flowers may have deceit; there is no reward, such as in orchids. Bees must land on the flower to feed; need a pollinator. Bees eat pollen. They like the colours blue and yellow. Bees generally start at the bottom of a raceme, and work upwards; the inflorescence has female flowers near the bottom, and male flowers near the top, to encourage out-crossing. |
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Definition
| A transition in pollinator that has happened many times. Several theories for this transition. Beneficial because birds don't eat pollen, and they cannot prune their heads. |
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Definition
| A pollination syndrome. Flattened or disk-shaped flowers. Flowers are geren, off-white, brown, or red. There is nectar, pollen, or no reward, with heavily scented flower with a fruity, decaying smell. May have traps, forcing pollinators to spend more time on the flower. |
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Definition
| Out-crossing with related individuals. |
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Term
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Definition
| A pollination syndrome. Large, tubular flowers without platforms. Flowers are red or orange. There are copious amounts of dilute nectar, but the flower is odourless. The nectar is watery. Open in the day. Birds like red, have long beaks that fit into long nectary tubes. Birds eat nectar. |
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Term
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Definition
Chamaelirium luteum
In the family Liliaceae. A dioecious, herbaceous plant. Studies were done on its mating systems.
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
Lobelia siphilitica
A plant with gynodioecy. Female plants have higher photosynthetic rate than hermaphrodites, supporting greater seed production by fixing more carbon.
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
Collinsia verna
Ontario is its northernmost range. Reproductive assurance is important for this species. Has predominately delayed self-pollination. Flwoers in the early spring. Low inbreeding depression. Kalisz et al (2007) found that it had transmission advantage, reproductive assurance, very low inbreeding depression, and no seed discounting or pollen discounting.
[image] |
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Definition
| A model based on the random movement of particles. |
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Definition
| A pollination syndrome. There is no obvious pollination syndrome; they seem to like showy, tubular flowers with nectar and day opening, but with less scent. Otherwise, the pollination syndrome is similar to moths'. |
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Definition
Aquilegia canadensis
A bird-pollinated flower. Flowers in the spring. Reproductive assurance is important in this species. Herlihy and Eckert (2002) found that it had transmission advantage, reproductive assurance, very high inbreeding depression (around 0.98), and very high seed discounting. Have high rates of geitonogamous self-pollination.
[image] |
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Definition
"There is much difficulty in understanding why hermaphrodite plants should ever have been rendered dioecious" -Charles Darwin, 1877
Initially proposed the co-evolutionary hypothesis, and the gynodioecy pathway. |
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Definition
| Flowers which never open, and have autonomous pollination. Tend to be small flowers. |
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Term
| Co-evolutionary hypothesis |
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Definition
| Postulated by Darwin. Change in spur length is due to co-evolution with a pollinator; as the pollinator's appendage becomes longer, the nectar spur must become longer to compete with the pollinator. Would expect a gradual increase in spur length. |
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Term
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Definition
| Evolving rapidly, making a phylogenetic tree hard to map. |
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Term
| Competeing self-pollination |
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Definition
| Autonomous self-pollination coinciding with outcrossing pollen. Pollen discounting, seed discounting, and inbreeding depression disfavour self-pollination. |
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Term
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Definition
| Evolved through natural selection to be similar. Many groups evolving to have the same suite of traits. Happens repeatedly in different lineages. |
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Term
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Definition
Out-crossing
Transfer of pollen from the anthers of one plant to the stigmas of another plant. |
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Definition
"Pollinators in high-elevation ecosystems: relative effectiveness of birds and bees" in Science, 176(4042), 1439 - 1440.
A theory for the cause of bee-bird pollination transition. Colonization of high-altitude habitats predispose insect-pollinated species to transition to bird pollination. It is too cold for bees to pollinate.
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Term
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Definition
| Autonomous self-pollination occurring after all opportunities for out-crossing have been passed. No pollen or seed discounting costs. Always provides reproductive assurance. Occurs at the very end of the flower's life span. Anthers reach a position where autonomous self-pollination occurs. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of gender dimorphism. Having male and female flowers on separate plants. May have evolved by the gynodioecy pathway or monoecy pathway. Interference between male and female floral functions drives specialization of flowers. 6% of angiosperms are dioecious, and 50% of all angiosperm families contain at least one dioecious species. There have been over 100 independent evolutionary transitions from hermaphroditism to dioecy in angiosperms. Has advantage because self-pollination is completely prevented. Associated with woody growth form, and tropical distribution, although it is unclear why. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Pollination with the aid of a biotic or abiotic pollen vector. Self-pollination and cross-pollination are both possible. Often several vectors may pollinate the flower, but there is a primary pollinator. |
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Term
| Facilitated self-pollination |
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Definition
| Pollinators transport pollen from anther to stigma on the same flower. |
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Term
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Definition
| Not affected much by floral traits. All ovules are generally fertilized, regardless of the attrictiveness of the flower. More energy is put into fruit production. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| More common in woody plants. |
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Term
| Geitonogamous self-pollination |
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Definition
| Self-pollination where pollinators transport pollen from anther to stigma on the same plant. |
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Term
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Definition
| The degree of maleness or femaleness. Determined by the distribution and allocation of sexual function. Can be measured for flowers within plants, individual plants, or populations of plants. |
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Term
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Definition
| Having two morphs. Plants produce functional male and female gametes on different individuals. Includes dioecy, gynodioecy, and androdioecy. More common in woody plants. |
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Term
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Definition
| Having a signle morph. Produces male and female gametes on the same individual. More common than gender dimorphism. Includes hermaphroditism, monoecy, andromonoecy, and gynomonoecy. |
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Definition
"Historical development of ornithophily in the western North American flora" in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 9(12), 10407 - 10411.
A theory for the cause of bee-bird pollination transition. Range extension brings hummingbirds into contact with bee pollinated species. Once a species in the community transitions to bird pollination, it is more likely for other species to transition. |
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Term
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Definition
| It is easier to do experiments in a greenhouse compared to the field, however measurements of inbreeding depression may be low because plants are grown in ideal conditions. |
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Definition
| A type of gender dimorphism. Having plants with female flowers as well as plants with hermaphroditic flowers. May have evolved from hermaphroditism. Associated with herbaceous growth form and temperate distribution. |
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Term
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Definition
| A patwhay by which dioecy may have evolved from hermaphroditism. An earlier theory, first proposed by Charles Darwin. Some plants lose male fertility, adn teh species becomes gynodioecious. The hermaphroditic morph loses female fertility, adn teh species becomes dioecious. Female plants overcome their disadvantage compared to hermaphrotidic plants by producing more or higher quality seeds than hermaphrodites; they may photosynthesize at a greater rate, putting less N into pollen and more into Rubisco; have the advantage of never self-pollinating. A pathway through gynodioecy is more likely than a pathway through androdioecy because the genes for female plants are carried through mitochondria. Only a few genes are knocked out to produce male sterility. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of gender monomorphism. Having separate female and hermaphroditic flowers on the same plant. May have evolved from hermaphroditism. An improbably mating system; requires unrealistically high amounts of seed produciton in females. |
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Definition
Bisexual flowers
A type of gender monomorphism. Having perfect flowers with both male and female parts. The ancestral condition in angiosperms. All other sexual systems have evolved from hermaphroditic ancestors. 72% of plant species are hermaphroditic. The rest have more complex sexual systems. Have advantage over other plants because they can pass on genes through ovules and pollen. |
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Term
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Definition
| Found only in North and South America. Have extended their range from the neotropics into temperate regions. Hummingbird-pollinated plants in the neotrpics are more likely to be self-compatible than co-occurring species pollinated by other vectors. Hover while they feed. |
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Term
| Inbreeding depression (δ) |
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Definition
| A disadvantage of self-fertilization. Low vigour in progeny produced from self-fertilization. Some species have low inbreeding depression, especially self-pollinating species. Selects against the evolution of self-pollination if δ > 0.5. |
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Term
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Definition
| A macro-evolutionary approach for continuously distribued traits. |
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Term
| Kunitake, Y.K., Hasegawa, M., Miyashita, T., and Higuchi, H. (2004) |
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Definition
"Role of a seasonally specialist bird Zosterops japonica on pollen transfer and reproductive succes of Camellia japonica in a temperate area" in Plant Species Biology, 19(2), 197 - 201.
A theory for the cause of bee-bird pollination transition. Bird pollination is more likely to evolve in plants that flower in the winter when insects have low population densities. |
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Term
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Definition
Phacelia linearis
A plant with gynodioecy. Female plants produce more seeds than hermaphrodites.
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
| An anti-bee trait and a pro-bird trait. Lipless flowers had more visits from bees. |
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Term
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Definition
Inadequate sampling
Only sampling a few species from each taxon, which doesn't represent very well. |
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Term
| Macro-evoluationary approach |
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Definition
Examines the historical patterns of character evolution by mapping transitions on evolutionary trees. Need to have intermediate populations, and a system with bi-directional transitions, so it is not a good approach for studying pollination transitions. For continuously distributed traits, includes independent contrast and paired comparisons.
1. Map character states of existing taxa on a phylogeny
2. Reconstruct ancestral character states
3. Test for associations between transitions in character states and transitions in ecological factors or other traits |
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Term
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Definition
| Much affected by floral traits. The amount of pollen transmitted depends on the attractiveness of the flower. |
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Term
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Definition
A description of who mates with whom, or the relationship between sexually reproductive mates in the population.
1. Sample tissue from maternal plants and offspring, as well as potential paternal plants
2. Genotype mothers, their offspring and potential fathers of offspring using genetic markers
3. Compare genotype of each mother and offspring, determine which alleles at the genotyped locus each offspring inherited from its mother. The offspring inherited the other allele at the locus from its father.
4. Use the genotype of the potential parent plants to determine the most likely father of each offspring |
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Term
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Definition
| Changes between cross-fertilization and self-fertilization. Selection for self-fertilization includes transmission advantage and reproductive assurance. Selection against self-fertilization includes inbreeding depression, seed discounting, and pollen discounting. |
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Term
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Definition
| Software for creating and analyzing phylogenetic trees. |
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Term
| Mincheneau, Claire, Jacques Forunell, and Thierry Pailler (2006) |
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Definition
"Bird pollination in angraecoid orchid on Reuinion Island (Mascarene Archipelago, Indian Ocean)" in Annals of Botany, 97(6), 965 - 974.
A theory for the cause of bee-bird pollination transition.
Bird pollination is more likely to evolve on isolated islands that have been colonized by few insects. |
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Term
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Definition
| Measures the function of character and resulting fitness in existing or experimental populations. Evolution in action. |
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Term
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Definition
| A genus in which it is easy to make hybrids of species. |
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Term
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Definition
| Species which self-pollinate as well as cross-pollinate. Until recently, it was thought that they were rare. |
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Definition
| The average of all three mapping models. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of gender monomorphism. Having separate male and female flowers on the same plant. May have evolved from hermaphroditism, gynomonoecy, andromonoecy, or trioecy. |
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Term
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Definition
| A pathway by which dioecy may have evolved from hermaphroditism. The plant evolves to have male and female flowers separately on the plant. The two flower types then become separated onto separate plants, and the species becomes dioecious. There is selection for more male or female plants, until dioecy develops. More reversible than the gynodioecy pathway; there can be transitions back and forth. |
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Term
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Definition
| A pollination syndrome. Showy, tubular flower form. Flowers are white. Copious amounts of nectar, and swee scent. Open in the night. Moths have long probiscises that are inserted into the flower. |
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Term
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Definition
| A pro-bird trait. Decreased bee handling time, because the bees could not fit into the corolla to access nectaries. |
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Term
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Definition
| Fused petals, extending from the flower, holding nectar. Usually evolve to become longer. |
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Term
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Definition
| One gene copy is transmitted with cross-pollination. |
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Term
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Definition
| A macro-evolutionary approach for continuously distributed traits. Identify all evolutionary independent pairs of taxa. Determine how characters have diverged between members of each pair. Determine how often divergence is in the same or different direction. |
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Term
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Definition
| Software that provides a more powerful test for correlated evolutionary changes. |
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Definition
A measure of gender in plants. The relative investment in pollen and ovules. A completely female flower has a GP of 1. A completely male flower has a GP of 0.
GP = (# pistillate flowers) / (# pistillate flowers + # staminate flowers) |
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Term
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Definition
Aristolochia grandiflora
A beetle/fly-pollinated flower.
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
| A pro-bird trait. It had neutral effect on bees, but increased handling time for both. Could be a trait that combines with other traits to make it pro-bird. |
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Term
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Definition
| A genus in which the transition from bee to hummingbird pollinator has evolved independently at least 13 times. It is difficult to make hybrids of species. May have evolved to improve morphological fit between bird and flower, or to exclude less efficient bees, or both. |
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Term
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Definition
| Insensitive to seed production as a selector. As long as a few offsprign survive, the replacement rate in the population is maintained. |
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Definition
Female flowers
Produce seeds. Are almost always smaller than staminate flowers, for developmental reasons. Pistillate plants (in a dimorphic system) can have higher photosynthetic rates because they save on nitrogen by not producing pollen. Nitrogen is relocated to leaves. |
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Definition
| Requires high amounts of nitrogen. |
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Term
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Definition
| A disadvantage of self-fertilization. Pollen that is used for self-pollination cannot be used for outcrossing. An opportunity cost. |
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Term
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Definition
| Transfer of pollen from anthers to stigmas. Essential for sexual reproduction. Facilitates union of male gametes and female gametes, leading to seed production. Includes self-pollination and cross-pollination. |
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Term
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Definition
| A suite of phenotypic traits hypothesized to reflect convergent adaptations of flowers for pollination by specific types of animals. Evolved because different pollen vectors exert predictable natural selection on floral traits that affect the efficiency of pollen transfer. Traits include floral form (size, shape), display (inflorescence architecture), attractants (colour, scent), and rewards (nectar, pollen). Pollination syndromes are correlated with pollinator visitation. Sometimes pollination syndrome is not indicative of the primary pollinator, due to recent shifts. |
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Term
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Definition
When pollinators fail to pollinate. Self-pollination brings reproductive assurance.
(1 - % frut set of emasculated flowers) / (% fruit sef of hand outcrossed intact flowers) |
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Term
| Pollinator shift hypothesis |
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Definition
| Change in nectar spur length is due to a shift in pollinator. Expects a sudden change in spur length. |
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Term
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Definition
| Self-pollination before the opportunity for outcrossing pollen. High seed and pollen discounting. |
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Term
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Definition
| Traits in the bird pollination syndrome which encourage bird pollination. Includes lipless corolla, narrow corollas, and pendent flowers. |
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Term
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Definition
| Prevents self-pollination. The anthers become active before stigmas are receptive. |
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Term
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Definition
| Prevents self-pollination. The stigmas are receptive before anthers become active. |
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Term
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Definition
| Self-pollinating a lot within a population, leading to removal of deleterious inbreeding depression alleles. Removes inbreeding depression. |
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Term
| Randombly resolved polytomy |
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Definition
| An approach to dealing with polytomies. Randomly creates a resolution for the polytomy, and goes with that. |
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Term
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Definition
| An advantage for self-fertilization. Variation in pollinator service, and self-pollination increase in seed set in the absence of pollinators and/or mates. |
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Term
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Definition
Penstemon structus
A bee-pollinated flower.
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
| High in nitrogen. Required for photosynthesis. |
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Term
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Definition
Ipomopsis aggregata
A bird-pollinated flower.
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
A plant with gynodioecy. From Hawaii. Hermaphrodite plants have high self-pollination rates, whereas it is impossible for female plants to self-pollinate. Seeds produced by females germinate at higher rates than seeds produced by hermaphrodites. Self-pollination in hermaphrodites leads to inbreeding depression.
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
| Require high amounts of carbon. |
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Term
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Definition
| A disadvantage of self-fertilization. Ovules that are self-fertilized cannot be cross-fertilized. An opportunity cost. |
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Term
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Definition
| Transfer of pollen from the anthers of a plant to the stigmas of the same plant. May lead to inbreeding depression, however more of the individual's own genes are passed on. Reproductive assurance, if no pollinators visit the plant can still reproduce. Some species have mechanisms to prevent self-pollination. Includes autogamous and geitonogamous self-pollination. Includes prior, competing, and delayed self-pollination. |
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Term
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Definition
| Two gene copies, one paternal and one maternal, are transmitted with self-pollination. |
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Term
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Definition
| Studying the evolution of sexual systems is difficult because families usually do not have much variety in sexual system. Instead, large clades must be studied. Asteraceae has high diversity in sexual systems. |
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Term
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Definition
Male flowers
Produce pollen. Often showier than pistillate flowers because they depend on pollination to spread maximum amounts of pollen. |
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Term
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Definition
"Adaptive shifts towards hummingbird pollination" in The evolutionary ecology of plants, 39 - 60.
A theory for the cause of bee-bird pollination transition. Colonization of wetter habitats and adoption of perennial life history predispose species to transition to bird pollination. Greated water supply for nectar production. |
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Term
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Definition
"Ecological and evolutionary implications of bird pollination" in American zoologist, 18(4), 715 - 727.
A theory for the cause of bee-bird pollination transition. Bird pollination is more likely to evolve in dry habitats where insects have low population densities. |
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Term
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Definition
| An advantage for self-fertilization. Self-pollinating plants transmit 50% more gene copies compared to out-crossing plants. Not as strong of a selector as inbreeding depression. Always selects for self-pollination. |
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Term
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Definition
| Three morphs. Having separate female, male, and hermaphroditic plants. |
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Term
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Definition
| Having separate female, male, and hermaphroditic flowers on the same plant. May have evolved from gynomonoecy or andromonoecy. |
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Term
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Definition
| A pollination syndrome. Small, feathery stigmas, protruding stamens, and small pollen size. Flowers are green. There is no nectar and no scent. High pollen to ovule ratio; needs to produce a lot of pollen to icnrease chances of pollination. |
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Term
| Wolowski, Marina et al (2013) |
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Definition
"Predominance of self-compatibility in hummingbird-pollinated plants in the Neotropics" in Naturwissenshaften 100(1), 69 - 79.
A theory for the cause of bee-bird pollination transition. In the neotropics, hummingbird-pollinated plants are more likely to be self-compatible than co-occurring species that are pollinated by other vectors. |
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Term
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Definition
Stapelia gigantea
A beetle/fly-pollinated flower.
[image] |
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