Term
| Where are the majority of steroid receptors? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where are receptors for water-soluble hormones? |
|
Definition
| On the outside of the cell -- they cannot pass the cell membrane! |
|
|
Term
| What are the three domains for water-soluble hormone receptors? |
|
Definition
| Binding domain (projects outside the membrane); transmembrane domain; cytoplasmic domain (the part that initiates target cell response) |
|
|
Term
| "T/F: One hormone, one response is the rule." |
|
Definition
| False. One hormone can trigger different responses in different types of cells. |
|
|
Term
| What's the pathway for the fight-or-flight response? |
|
Definition
| Senses detect danger-->signal adrenals to release epinephrine-->heart beats; liver breaks down glycogen; blood to gut cut off to go to escape muscles; fat cells release fatty acids. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ADH and oxytocin (to post. pit.); release/release-inhibitors to ant. pit. |
|
|
Term
| Anterior pituitary hormones? |
|
Definition
| "Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), Luteinizing hormone (LH), Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), Growth, Prolactin" |
|
|
Term
| Posterior pituitary hormones? |
|
Definition
| "Oxytocin,Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Insulin, glucagon, somatostatin" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Thyroxine (T4 and T3), calcitonin" |
|
|
Term
| Parathyroid glands hormones? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "CORTEX: Cortisol, aldosterone; MEDULLA: epinephrine" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "LADIES: Estrogens, progesterone; GENTLEMEN: testosterone" |
|
|
Term
| Name six secondary endocrine glands. |
|
Definition
| "Adipose tissue, heart, kidney, stomach, intestines, and skin." |
|
|
Term
| Where is the pituitary gland? |
|
Definition
| Attached to the hypothalamus. |
|
|
Term
| PATHWAY: Two negative feedback for hypo/pituitary. |
|
Definition
| Build up from tropic hormone --> hypothal; buildup of endocrine hormone --> hypo/ant. pit. |
|
|
Term
| List the 7 hypothalamic tropic hormones and what they regulate. |
|
Definition
| PRH (+ Prolactin); PIH (dopamine; - prolactin); TRH (+ TSH); CRH (+ ACTH); GHRH (+GH); Somatostatin (GHIH; - GH); GnRH (+ LH & FSH) |
|
|
Term
| PATHWAY: Tropic hormones. |
|
Definition
| Hypothal neuron makes tropic hormone --> takes portal vein bwn hypo and ant. pit --> ant pit releases tropic hormone --> that controls |
|
|
Term
| What's the difference between T3 and T4? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How is thyroxine made in the thyroid follicle? |
|
Definition
| "Epithelial cell takes up I, binds it to tyrosines. Those get glycosylated and sits until needed. When needed, it gets endocytosed into a lysosome, chewed up, and secreted as T4 and T3." |
|
|
Term
| Give me two reasons for hyperthyroidism related to glands. |
|
Definition
| 1) Thyroid is releasing too much T3/T4; 2) Ant pit is releasing too much TSH. |
|
|
Term
| What two glands work together to keep [Ca2+] in blood between 9mg and 11mg/100mL? |
|
Definition
| "The thyroid, with calcitonin (decreases [Ca2+]) and parathyroid (PTH, increases [Ca2+])." |
|
|
Term
| What's the diff between the two types of diabetes? |
|
Definition
| Type I: lack of insulin. Type II: lack of insulin receptors on target cells. |
|
|
Term
| "Other than the Islet hormones, what does the pancreas secrete?" |
|
Definition
| "Digestive enzymes (from the acinar and duct cells, all of which exocrine; as well as the F cell)" |
|
|
Term
| What do beta-blockers block? |
|
Definition
| "Beta-adrenergic receptors, thus reducing the fight-or-flight response." |
|
|
Term
| What determines whether a fetus will become a dude or a lady? |
|
Definition
| "Sex steroids (testosterone, and estradiol/progesterone)" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "1) Antibody (ZAb) specific for a hormone (Z) is in solution. |
|
|
Term
| Explain how Type II diabetes might develop. |
|
Definition
| "Results from downregulation of insulin receptors. Might be b/c, over the course of a life, we ate too many carbs, which caused too much insulin to be released, and thus your cells shed their insulin receptors." |
|
|
Term
| Why should you never just stop taking beta-blockers? |
|
Definition
| "Over time, the lack of ep and norep uptake leads to ^^ of receptors. If you stop blocking those receptors all of a sudden, you'll absorb SO MUCH EP AND NOREP YOU'LL EXPLODE OMG." |
|
|
Term
| How does epinephrine function in the cell? |
|
Definition
| "G-protein mechanism (attaches to receptor, which phosphorylates G protein, splits off alpha which activates adenylyl cyclase)" |
|
|
Term
| T/F Hormones have different effects when they come into contact with different receptors. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What're two ways norepinephrine could activate a signal xduction pathway? |
|
Definition
| G-protein --> adenylyl cyclase; G-protein --> phospholipase C --> ^^ 2ndary messengers like cAMP. |
|
|
Term
| What are the development steps of sperm? |
|
Definition
| Germ cell(2n)-->spermatogonium(2n)-->1o spermatocyte(4n)-->2 * 2o spermatocyte(2n)-->4 spermatids(n) (sperm) |
|
|
Term
| What are the development steps of ova? |
|
Definition
| Germ cell(2n)-->oogonium(2n)-->1o oocyte(4n)(PAUSE) --> 2o oocyte(2n)+ polarbody 1 -->2 * ootid(n) (+polarbody 2) --> ovum |
|
|
Term
| What are the steps of fertilization? |
|
Definition
| "1) Recognition of sperm and egg |
|
|
Term
| What are the two barriers in an urchin egg? |
|
Definition
| "The jelly layer, then the vitelline envelope." |
|
|
Term
| What are the two barriers in an internally fertilized egg? |
|
Definition
| The cumulus and the zona pellucida. |
|
|
Term
| Fast block to polyspermy? |
|
Definition
| NOT IN MAMMALS!!! The change in membrane potential as Na+ ions enter the membrane of an egg after sperm contacts it |
|
|
Term
| Slow block to polyspermy? |
|
Definition
| "Ca2+ is released. (REMEMBER CA2+!!) Cortical granules fuse with the plasma membrane and exit the egg. Bonds bwn vitelline envelope and plasma membrane dissolve. H2O absorbed, and enzymes remove sperm-binding receptors" |
|
|
Term
| What does sexual reproduction require? |
|
Definition
| The production of haploid gametes and the formation of a diploid zygote. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the layout of the seminiferous tubules. |
|
Definition
| "They're lined with germ cells in various states of development. They're organized from least developed on the outside, to most developed toward the inside lumen." |
|
|
Term
| What hormone starts spiking at puberty? |
|
Definition
| GnRH --> Ant Pit: LH and FSH ^^^ |
|
|
Term
| What does LH affect in dudes? |
|
Definition
| "Leydig cells, which produce testosterone." |
|
|
Term
| What does FSH affect in dudes? |
|
Definition
| "Sertoli cells, which make spermies and then inhibin." |
|
|
Term
| What happens when the blastocyst encounters the endometrium? |
|
Definition
| Implantation (it burrows into it) |
|
|
Term
| Two cycles of the female reproductive cycle? |
|
Definition
| Ovarian cycle (eggs and hormones); uterine cycle (endometrium preparation) |
|
|
Term
| When does ovulation occur? |
|
Definition
| Around Day 14 f of the 28-day ovarian cycle. |
|
|
Term
| Process of 1o oocyte --> expulsion? |
|
Definition
| "oocyte (+follicular cells, to support and nourish it)->-after 2 weeks of growth, follicle ruptures, releases ovum-->ovum goes with follicles (remaining follicle cells become corpus luteum which secretes estrogen and progesterone for 2 weeks)-->into the oviduct " |
|
|
Term
| About how many ovarian cycles does a lady usually go through |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When do LH and FSH peak in the ovarian/uterine cycle? |
|
Definition
| Just around ovulation (around d14) |
|
|
Term
| What effect does estrogen have on LH and FSH? |
|
Definition
| "It inhibits them, until days 12-14 when it magically becomes a positive feedback signal." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Before ovulation (around d13) |
|
|
Term
| When/why does progesterone start increasing? |
|
Definition
| "After ovulation, if the egg doesn't get fertilized" |
|
|
Term
| When do ladies have their special time? |
|
Definition
| Days 0-5ish of the uterine cycle. |
|
|
Term
| What do LH and FSH do in broads at puberty? |
|
Definition
| "Stimulates ovarian tissue to grow, which then releases estrogen." |
|
|
Term
| What happens right before menstruation? |
|
Definition
| Pituitary increases FH and LH; follicles in ovary grow and estrogen ^^; 1 follicle completely matures |
|
|
Term
| What does the LH surge do? |
|
Definition
| "Cuases the follicle to burst and release its egg, and develop the corpus luteum." |
|
|
Term
| What does the corpus luteum do? |
|
Definition
| "It secretes estrogen and progesterone, which -- the Ant. Pit. and hypo, inhibiting GnRH and thus new follicle maturation. No fertilization, it degenerates, so another follicle can mature." |
|
|
Term
| "What do sperm and egg contribute to the zygote, respectively?" |
|
Definition
| Sperm give DNA and MOC; egg gives DNA and nutrients and mRNAs and organelles and xscription factors. |
|
|
Term
| T/F: Eggs are transcriptionally active during the developmental process. |
|
Definition
| False: mRNAs take care of making shit. |
|
|
Term
| How are segments of the frog egg defined d/t cytoplasmic movement? |
|
Definition
| Ventral region is site of sperm entry; gray crescent is dorsal region. Animal and vegetal are anterior/posterior axis. |
|
|
Term
| What initiates cytoplasmic reorganization? |
|
Definition
| "The centriole from the sperm. It causes the MTs in the vegetal hemi to make a parallel array to guide the cytoplasm, and move organelles and proteins." |
|
|
Term
| What happens when the zygote reaches 8 cells? |
|
Definition
| The blastomeres change shape to maximize contact with one another. |
|
|
Term
| What happens when zygie reaches 16-32 cells? |
|
Definition
| The blastocyst divides into two masses: the inner cell mass (becomes the embryo); and the trophoblast (a sac forms from the outer cells and secretes fluid) |
|
|
Term
| What adheres to the endometrium? |
|
Definition
| The trophoblast (the sac!) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Vegetal hemisphere flattens, invaginates (archenteron; starts at bunghole), elongates to meet ectoderm (mouth). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| """dorsal lip of blastopore"" becomes archenteron, displaces blastocoel, results in atchenteron with endo meso and ecto derm around it." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ectoderm over notochord forms neural plate; edges of neural plate fold and make a groove; the folds fuse making a neural tube (and a layer of ecto) |
|
|
Term
| What does the anterior end of the neural tube become? The rest? |
|
Definition
| "The brain, and the rest becomes the spinal cord." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When does the heart begin to beat? When do limbs form? |
|
Definition
| "Week 4 and 8, respectively." |
|
|
Term
| When is Fetusy most susceptible to shit? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Second trimester and third trimester? |
|
Definition
| "Limbs elongate and facial features form; 3rd, organs mature and begin to function." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The lungs. That's pretty dumb. |
|
|
Term
| T/F: O2 content of air is higher than that of water. |
|
Definition
| "For reals. It also diffuses faster through air, and it takes less energy to move air than water." |
|
|
Term
| How far is any given cell away from a capillary? |
|
Definition
| No more than one or two cells away. |
|
|
Term
| How do water critters manage to respire effectively? |
|
Definition
| "They have larger surface areas for gas exchange, central cavities, or specialized respiratory systems." |
|
|
Term
| Why do we want a minimum diffusion path length of O2 and CO2? |
|
Definition
| B/c it increases the partial pressure gradients! |
|
|
Term
| How much is someone's avg tidal volume? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How much is a dude or lady's avg. vital capacity? How do you increase it? |
|
Definition
| "6L or 5L. By cardio, or wind instruments, or coughing, or dreams" |
|
|
Term
| What are two features that offset the inefficiency of tidal breathing in mammals? |
|
Definition
| An enormous surface area and a very short path length for diffusion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Trachea --> bronchi --> bronchioles --> alveoli. |
|
|
Term
| What's blood's pathway through the alveolar capillaries? |
|
Definition
| "Comes in DeO2-ed, releases HCO3- as CO2 into alveolus, gets oxygenated, moves on" |
|
|
Term
| How does inhalation occur? |
|
Definition
| "Diaphragm contracts, pulls down on the cavity/pleura, which creates negative pressure: expanding the lungs" |
|
|
Term
| How does exhalation occur? |
|
Definition
| "The diaphragm relaxes, and the elastic lung tissues pull the diaphragm back up and push air out of the airways." |
|
|
Term
| What role do the intercostal muscles play in breathing? |
|
Definition
| "The external ones lift the ribs up and outward, expanding the cavity; the internal ones decrease the volume by pulling the ribs down and inward. This helps in breathing." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "When the pleura are compromised, the pressure in the pleural space suddenly increases and no longer sucks the lung out -- thus, it just snaps back. Remember, pleural space is negative pressure." |
|
|
Term
| How does Hgb decide how much O2 to pick up? |
|
Definition
| "The pO2 of the plasma. If it's high, like in the lungs, Hgb will pick up its maximum of four. If it's low (as in oxygen-needy tissues), it'll release some." |
|
|
Term
| What's the pO2 in the lungs? What's the pO2 in needy tissues? |
|
Definition
| About 100 mmHg (hence 100% O2 binding). About 40mmHg (about 75% O2 binding.) |
|
|
Term
| T/F: Fetal hemoglobin has less affinity for O2 than mama's Hgb. |
|
Definition
| "FALSE. Fetal Hgb *has* to have a higher affinity, so it can steal O2 from mom's Hgb." |
|
|
Term
| What are the three factors affecting the affinity of Hgb for O2? |
|
Definition
| "1) Composition of Hgb (different in diff people or ages.) |
|
|
Term
| What happens to CO2 after it's xported away from tissues? Why? |
|
Definition
| "It slowly converts to HCO3- in the plasma (or more quickly, thx to carbonic anhydrase, in endo and RBCs); it keeps the pCO2 low and facilitates CO2 diffusion away from tissues." |
|
|
Term
| What happens to CO2 in the lungs? |
|
Definition
| "HCO3- is converted into CO2, diffuses from the blood into the alveoli (pCO2 is low in there!) and is exhaled." |
|
|
Term
| T/F: Breathing rate is more sensitive to changes in pCO2 than to pO2 (in mammals) |
|
Definition
| TRUE. It's the primary metabolic feedback for breathing. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "In the carotid and aortic bodies in the vessels leaving the heart. If pO2 falls, they shoot signals to the brain stem to stimulate breathing." |
|
|
Term
| What comprises a circulatory system (hint: 3 things)? |
|
Definition
| A muscular pump (le coeur); a fluid (le sang); and a series of conduits (les sang vessels) |
|
|
Term
| Why is a closed circulatory system advantageous? |
|
Definition
| "1) There's faster transport through vessels. |
|
|
Term
| What's the advantages of having separate pulmonary and systemic circuits? |
|
Definition
| "1) Systemic circuit always receives blood with higher pO2 |
|
|
Term
| Path of blood flow (pulmonary circuit first) |
|
Definition
| Superior and inferior Vena cava --> Right atrium (contracts) --> Right ventricle (contracts) --> Pulmonary arteries --> Lungs --> Pulmonary veins --> Left atrium(contracts) --> Left ventricle (contracts) --> Aorta --> Body --> |
|
|
Term
| "T/F: In the cardiac cycle, both sides of the heart contract in synchrony." |
|
Definition
| "True. First the atria contract, then the ventricles." |
|
|
Term
| "What's the ""lubdup"" noise in auscultation?" |
|
Definition
| "The atrialventricular valves closing, then the ventricular valves closing." |
|
|
Term
| What types of junctions are bwn most cardiac cells? |
|
Definition
| "Gap junctions, in order to spread action potentials so contraction occurs in unison." |
|
|
Term
| What makes the action potentials weird in pacemaker cells? |
|
Definition
| "The Na+ channels are more open, and the channels are more permeable to Na+ than K+, so the memb. pot. is less negative; also, the actpot is d/t voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, which open more slowly than Na+ (making a humpy action potential). " |
|
|
Term
| What does norepinephrine do to pacemaker cells? How about acetylcholine? |
|
Definition
| Norep makes the threshold be reached more quickly (increases permeability of cation channels); ACh makes it be reached less quickly (by increasing K+ perm and decreasing Ca2+ perm). |
|
|
Term
| How is the action potential in the heart propagated? |
|
Definition
| "Generated in SA node, spreads throughout gap junctions in the atria. This stimulates bundle of His, which divides into right and left bundle branches that run to the tips of the ventricles. Purkinje fibers spread throughout the ventricles and spreads the contraction rapdily and evenly throughout the ventricles. Thi delay ensures proper blood flow! Rinse, repeat (god willing!)" |
|
|
Term
| T/F: Ventricular muscle fibers have a shorter contraction than skeletal muscle fibers. |
|
Definition
| False. They contract for much longer b/c the Ca2+ channels are open longer than the Na+ channels in normal action potentials. |
|
|
Term
| PQRST wave patterns meanÉ |
|
Definition
| P: Depolarization of the atria. QRS: Depolarization of the ventricles. T: Relaxation and repolarization of the ventricles. |
|
|
Term
| Where are red blood cells generated? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When do RBCs ditch their organelles? When do they degrade? |
|
Definition
| When they're about 30% Hgb. They last about 120 days before rupturing in narrow capillaries (as in the spleen). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Platelets accumulate at a wound and plug it. They release chemical clotting factors to attract other platelets. Prothrombin becomes thrombin, which cleaves fibrinogen into fibrin. These threads make a mesh that clots the blood and seals vessel." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Gases, ions, nutrients, proteins, and other molecules (hormones and vitamins, eg)" |
|
|
Term
| Where's blood pressure highest and lowest? |
|
Definition
| "Highest in the large arteries; lowest in the capillaries. (arterioles are highly branched; capillaries contribute ENORMOUS surface area, so less pressure)" |
|
|
Term
| What are capillaries permeable to? Why? |
|
Definition
| "They're permeable to water, ions, and small molecules, but not large proteins. B/c they have fenestrations in their thin thin walls." |
|
|
Term
| What forces things into and ot of the capillaries? |
|
Definition
| Osmotic pressure/Starling forces. There's less crap in the blood? Shove in shit. More crap in the blood? Send it out. |
|
|
Term
| What prevents backflow in veins? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What assists blood returning to the heart from the lower extremities? |
|
Definition
| Skeletal muscle contractions that squeeze the veins. |
|
|
Term
| Where do lymphatic capillaries merge? |
|
Definition
| Two thoracic ducts that empty into neck veins. |
|
|
Term
| What causes atherosclerosis? |
|
Definition
| "Genes, age, high-fat/smoking/lazy, medical conditions (HTN, diabetes)" |
|
|
Term
| T/F: ARteries and arterioles are innervated by the sympathetic division of the ANS. |
|
Definition
| True! Norep causes arterioles to contract; ACh causes them to relax. |
|
|
Term
| What des epinephrine do? What does angiotensin do? Why are they released? |
|
Definition
| "Epinephrine contracts arterioles, in response to drop in pressure or F-or-F; angiotensin reduces flow to peripheral tissues, when blood supply to kidneys fails" |
|
|
Term
| What controls HR and vessel constriction? |
|
Definition
| The CV control center in the medulla! |
|
|
Term
| What happens when arterial pressure falls? |
|
Definition
| "Kidney releases renin --> angiotensin --> vessels constrict, you get thirsty. Pressure rises. |
|
|
Term
| What's the response of increased activity of the baroreceptors (stretch receptors)? |
|
Definition
| "This signals rising blood pressure. Symp is inhibited; parasymp is increased. Heart slows, arterioles dilate, BP falls." |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference in chemoreceptors in the medulla and aorta/carotid? |
|
Definition
| "In the medulla, they're activated by ^^ pCO2; in the aorta and carotid, activated by vv pCO2." |
|
|
Term
| "In marine mammals, what allows them to stay underwater?" |
|
Definition
| Two things: the diving reflex (slows the heart and constricts blood vessels to all but critical tish); and hypometabolism (allows a metabolic rate lower than BMR). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Muscle, nerve, epithelial, and connective" |
|
|
Term
| How much water's in a 70kg dude? |
|
Definition
| "42L. 2/3 ICF; 1/3 ECF . Of the ECF, it's like 3/14 plasma and 11/14 Interstitial" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hormones that only affect target cells near the site of release. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hormones that affect the cells that release them. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Cells that have receptors for endocrine hormones. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Chemical signals that diffuse into the blood, and affect receptors far from the site of release" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Glands whose ducts release their products to the outside of the body. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Secretory cell clumps that release hormones to the extracellular space. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Water soluble, blood-transported hormones. Cannot cross membranes." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Lipid-soluble; must be bound to carrier proteins to be carried in blood. Can diffuse across membrane. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "For water soluble hormone receptors, this is the section that projects outside the plasma membrane" |
|
|
Term
| Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) |
|
Definition
| ANT PIT: Activates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine (T3 or T4). Regulated by TRH (+) |
|
|
Term
| Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) |
|
Definition
| "ANT PIT: In females, stimulates ovarian follicle maturation; in dudes, spermatogenesis. Regulated by GnRH (+)" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "ANT PIT: In ladies, triggers ovulation/ovarian prod of estrogens/progesterone. Dudes, production of testosterone. In short, makes you make sex hormone. Regulated by GnRH (+)" |
|
|
Term
| Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) |
|
Definition
| ANT PIT: stimulates adrenal CORTEX to secrete cortisol. Regulated by CRH (+) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ANT PIT: stimulates protein synthesis and growth. Regulated by GHRH (+) and somatostatin (or GHIH; -) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ANT PIT: stimulates milk production. Regulated by PRH (+) and PIH (-) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "POST PIT: stimulates contraction of uterus, flow of milk." |
|
|
Term
| Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) |
|
Definition
| POST PIT: promotes water conservation by kidneys |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| THYMUS: activates immune system T cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| PANC: binds to receptors on target cells to allow uptake of glucose. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| PANC: stimulates liver to release glucose |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| PANC and HYPOTHAL: slows digestive tract functions including release of insulin and glucagon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| PINEAL: helps regulate circadian rhythms. Produced from tryptophan. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "THYROID: stimulates cell metabolism (T3 1 fewer iodine, more active than T4)" |
|
|
Term
| Parathyroid hormone (PTH) |
|
Definition
| "PARATHY: stimulates release of Ca2+ from bone, stimulates kidneys to reabsorb Ca2+, activates Vitamin D (so gut absorbs Ca2+), stimulates removal of PO4s from the blood (which cause kidney stones)" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ADR CORTEX: mediates metabolic responses to stress. a glucocorticoid. reduces non-essential cells' use of blood glucose (eg immune cells) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "ADR CORTEX: ""involved"" in salt and water balance. a mineralocorticoid." |
|
|
Term
| Epinephrine and norepinephrine |
|
Definition
| ADR MEDULLA: stimulates fight or flight response |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| OVARY: develop and maintain female sexual characteristics (converted to this from testosterone!) |
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Term
|
Definition
| OVARY: supports pregnancy |
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Term
|
Definition
| BALLS: develop and maintain male sexual characteristics |
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Term
|
Definition
| Hormones synthesized by neurons. EG the hypothalamus synthesizes all the tropic hormones in the pituitary. |
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Term
|
Definition
| "From the anterior pituitary, they control other endocrine glands." |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| "blood vessels that control the entry and exit of shit from a gland or organ. (cf. kidney, pituitary)" |
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Term
|
Definition
| Another name for the hormones produced by the hypothalamus and delivered to the ant. pit. |
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Term
|
Definition
| "Enlarged thyroid caused by hyper- or hypothyroidism. Epithelial cells produce too much thyroglobulin, and the follicles enlarge" |
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Term
|
Definition
| "THYROID: inhibits osteoclasts, so osteoblasts can build up bone. ""Calcitonin TONES UP your BONES.""" |
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Term
|
Definition
| "AKA Calciferol, produced by skin cells from cholesterol by UV light. Combines with receptor to form xscription factor to synthesize Ca2+ pumps, channels, and binding proteins to enhance gut's uptake of Ca2+" |
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Term
|
Definition
| Clusters of endocrine cells in the pancreas. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Islets that produce insulin |
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Term
|
Definition
| Islets that produce glucagon |
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Term
|
Definition
| Islets that produce somatostatin (also released by hypothal) |
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Term
|
Definition
| The physiological changes in a critter triggered by seasonal channges. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Increase of receptors d/t low hormone secretion (you want to make sure you get ALL that hormone uptooken) |
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Term
|
Definition
| Decrease of receptors d/t flooding system with continuous high levels of hormone (you donÕt want to overuptake the hormone!) |
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Term
|
Definition
| The production of haploid gametes through meiotic cell division. |
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Term
|
Definition
| "The dividend of ovagenesis, accompanies 2o oocyte and ootid. Degrades." |
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Term
|
Definition
| Union of haploid sperm and haploid egg. Diploid. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The species-specific recognition molecules on the acrosomal process (the head). Their receptors are on the vitelline envelope. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The fusion of sperm and egg plasma membranes |
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Term
|
Definition
| "In internal fertilization, the cells in a gelatinous matrix surrounding the egg." |
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Term
|
Definition
| The glycoprotein envelope underneath the cumulus. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Creates a centrosome in the zygote that becomes the nucleation point for mitosis. |
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Term
|
Definition
| "NOT IN MAMMALS!! Post-removal of the sperm-binding receptors, the vitelline envelope hardens into this." |
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Term
|
Definition
| "Laying critters, not eggs." |
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Term
|
Definition
| Organ that develops in the uterus; the exchanger of nutrients and waste (border patrol) |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| Laying eggs with a living critter inside. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Where sperm cells are stored to become mature and motile. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Connects epididymis to urethra. |
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Term
|
Definition
| "The duct for the reproductive and urinary systems in dudes. In ladies, just for peeing." |
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Term
|
Definition
| where spermatogenesis occurs |
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Term
|
Definition
| What sertoli cells produce to exert negative feedback v. GnRH (in hypo) and FSH (in ant. pit.) |
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Term
|
Definition
| Fallopian tube (where the egg is fertilized and proceeds toward the uterus) |
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Term
|
Definition
| The first divisions of the zygote. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Lining of the uterus. Gets queefed out monthly. |
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Term
|
Definition
| "Maturation of a 1o oocyte into an egg, and expulsion from the ovary" |
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|
Term
| Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) |
|
Definition
| "Secreted by the cells on the blastocyst: keeps the corpus luteum and endometrium alive and kickin'. Released after implantation of embryo, early indicator of preggo" |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| "FROG EGG: lower half of the egg, where there are nutrients." |
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Term
|
Definition
| "FROG EGG: upper half, has the nucleus. " |
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Term
|
Definition
| FROG EGG: outside cytoplasm. heavily pigmented has high [protein] |
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Term
|
Definition
| FROG EGG: diffusely pigmented region of animal hemisphere |
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Term
|
Definition
| FROG EGG: band of pigmented cytoplasm opposite site of sperm entry |
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Term
|
Definition
| "Key xscription factor from maternal mRNA. Also, in APC in stem cells in your intestines. USEFUL." |
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Term
|
Definition
| "Phosphorylates and degrades beta-catenin throughout cytoplasm. Inhibited by protein in the vegetal pole vesicles, which move to the dorsal/gray crescent side. Thus, GSK only eats b-catenin in the ventral (spermy) side. In the end, dorsal cells have higher [beta-cat] than ventral!" |
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Term
|
Definition
| A rapid series of cell division with no cell growth |
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Term
|
Definition
| The embryo as a solid ball of small cells. |
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Term
|
Definition
| "The morula forms this, a central fluid-filled cavity" |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Division of cells in eggs with little yolk (eg, in mammals, or sea urchins)" |
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Term
|
Definition
| Eggs w/ lots of yolk have this: cleavage furrows can't penetrate |
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Term
|
Definition
| V. dense yolk: embryo forms as a blastodisc on top of the yolk |
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Term
|
Definition
| "In drosophila (et al.): forms a syncytium (multinucleate) cell, and the plasma membrane grows inward around the nuclei." |
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Term
|
Definition
| Mitotic spindles form parallel or perpendicular to the animal-vegetal axis. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Cell layers form to the left or right. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Mammalian: first a radial division; then another radial at right angles to the first. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Produced by labeling blastomeres to identify the tissues and organs they generate. |
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Term
|
Definition
| "In frogs, vegetal pole: forms lining of gut, liver, and lungs and pancreas." |
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Term
|
Definition
| "Near gray crescent: forms muscle, bone, kidneys, blood, nads, and connective tissues" |
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Term
|
Definition
| "ATTRACTODERM. At animal pole: forms epidermal layer of skin, as well as the nervous system, and eyes and ears." |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Each blastomere contributes certain aspects to the adult animal. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Cells compensate for lost cells. |
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Term
|
Definition
| What happens to blastomeres (blastocyst cells): they become committed to specific development at different times. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Movement of cells to create an embryo |
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Term
|
Definition
| "It's the labia of the blastopore. Its tissue is the ""primary embryonic organizer,"" uses lots of xscription factors." |
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Term
|
Definition
| Initiation of the nervous system. Occurs in early organogenesis. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The precursor of the vertebral column. Comes from mesoderm nearest the midline (chordamesoderm). |
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Term
|
Definition
| The thickened ectoderm over the notochord. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The fused folds of the neural plate. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Failure of the neural tube to fuse in the back. |
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Term
|
Definition
| "Um, no closure of neural tube, so no forebrain. Yikes." |
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Term
|
Definition
| "separate segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube. Forms muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of skin." |
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Term
|
Definition
| The cells bwn the neural plate and the neural tube. Get guided by somites to become peripheral nerves. |
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Term
|
Definition
| "In mice, control differentiation along anterior/posterior body axis. Gradients of different Hox products dictate what gets put where." |
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Term
|
Definition
| What the embryo becomes in the first trimester. |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Active moving of the respiratory medium over the gas exchange surfaces |
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Term
|
Definition
| Circulating blood over the gas exchange surfaces |
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Term
|
Definition
| Air flows in and out by the same path. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| "The amount of air that moves in and out per breath, in an ""average"" breath." |
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|
Term
| Inspiratory/Expiratory Reserve Volumes |
|
Definition
| The add'l amounts of air that we can inhale or exhale. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The air that cannot be expelled from the lungs |
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Term
|
Definition
| Vital capacity + Residual volume |
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Term
|
Definition
| Group of cells with cilia that sweep the mucus and particles out of the airway. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Makes alveoli expand and contract more efficiently -- makes 'em more elastic. Reduces the surface tension of a liquid |
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|
Term
| ARDS (Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome) |
|
Definition
| Preemies often don't have the ability to make lung surfactant. We spray the lungs w/it and they're FINE. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| "Two of them, containers for lungs" |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Sheet of muscle at the bottom of the thoracic cavities; causes pressure changes that result in breathing |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| "Lines each thoracic cavity and covers each lung, enclosing the pleural space" |
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Term
|
Definition
| Muscles between ribs. External lift ribs up and outward; internal pull ribs down and inward. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| "In Hgb, when one subunit binds O2, Hgb changes shape, making it easier for the next one to bind -- until 3/4 are bound, when it needs a big jump in pO2 to bind one more. Results in a sigmoid graph." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Has one O2 binding site, but has a higher affinity for O2 (so holds on to O2 when Hgb would let it go -- keeping it for times of high metabolic demand)." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "In endothelial and red blood cells, it speeds up the conversion from CO2 to HCO3-." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Part of the brain stem, controls breathing. Ventral surface is v. sensitive to pCO2 (and thus signals increase or decrease in RR)" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "In this, ECF combines with the circulatory system fluid, squeezes through intercellular spaces when the critter moves, and returns to the heart via ""ostia"" (open vessels)" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Carries blood away from the heart. Artery --> arteriole --> Capillary beds. |
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Term
|
Definition
| 1 RBC thick vessels. Site of exchange bwn blood and tissue fluid. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Drain the capillary beds. Venules --> Veins --> Heart |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Lie between the atria and ventricles, and prevent backflow when ventricles contract." |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Lies between right ventricle and pulmonary artery to prevent backflow when ventricles relax |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| "Lies bwn left ventricle and aorta, to prevent backflow when ventricle relaxes." |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| "When ventricles contract and relax, respectively." |
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Term
|
Definition
| Pressure needed to compress an artery so blood does not flow. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Pressure needed to allow the first dribs of blood through an artery. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Cells that start action potentials with nervous system input |
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Term
|
Definition
| "The primary pacemaker cells in the heart. Resting membrane pot is less negative and unstable, so cells gradually reach threshold. They're braoder and slower to return to resting potential." |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Liquid extracellular matrix of blood. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Part of the blood made of cells. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Hormone released in the kidney d/t low pO2 (hypoxia) that controls RBC production. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Arteries and arterioles -- they have elastin/collagen enhanced walls that allow them to stretch and recoil. Also, smooth muscle cells in the walls allow them to dilate or constrict." |
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Term
|
Definition
| Vein: they're expandable and blood can accumulate in them. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The system that returns interstitial fluid to the blood. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Interstitial fluid that enters the vessels. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| "They're the site of lymphocyte production; also, they remove microorganisms and foreign materials by phagocytosis. FILTERS. Really, the SEWER." |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| "Hardening of the arteries: endothelium gets damaged, and plaque forms at the sites. These damaged cells attract migration of smooth muscle cells, which have cholesterol and calcium deposits. This all makes the artery wall less elastic, or hardened." |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| A blood clot that forms from platelets sticking to arterial plaque. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Supplies blood to the heart muscle. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| "A thrombus forms in the coronary artery, leading to a myocardial infarction." |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Piece of a thrombus. Causes an embolism if it lodges in a blood vessel. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A brain embolism; kills the cells fed by that artery |
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|
Term
| Autoregulatory mechanisms |
|
Definition
| "Local actions in the capillary bed that cause the arterioles to constrict or dilate. Response to blood distribution, RR, or HR." |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Smooth muscle valves that shut off blood flow from an arterial to a capillary. Part of autoregulation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Low pO2 and high pCO2 cause relaxation of smooth muscles, which ^^ pO2 and vv pCO2" |
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|
Term
| Baroreceptors in carotid arteries and aorta. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Chemoreceptors in carotid arteries and aorta |
|
Definition
| Send information about blood composition |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| External chg --> triggers chg in regulated internal variable --> triggers rxn to oppose chg and return regulated variable to normal (set point) |
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|
Term
| "What's an example of negative feedback (say, with temperature)?" |
|
Definition
| Body temperature rises above 37degC. Error signal increases. Reg mechanism activates. Temp decreases to normal; error signal disappears |
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Term
|
Definition
| Information that anticipates internal changes and changes the set point. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Animals that regulate body temperature within a narrow range |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Animals that don't regulate body temperature |
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Term
|
Definition
| External sources of heat. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Regulate temperature by producing heat metabolically or by actively losing it |
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Term
|
Definition
| Use external sources of heat as well as produce it metabolically (or actively loses it) |
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|
Term
| Four ways to transfer heat |
|
Definition
| evaporation (of water -- #1!!); Radiation (EM waves); conduction (through contact); convection (fluid or air movement) |
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|
Term
| T/F: BMR in big critters is higher. |
|
Definition
| False: BMR per gram of tissue increases as animals get smaller. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The temperature range an animal can easily adapt within (beyond which one needs bigger metabolic increases) |
|
|
Term
| Two ways mammals produce heat: |
|
Definition
| "Shivering (skeletal muscles contract and release energy from ATP as heat); nonshivering (thermogenin in brown fat alters ATP production, causes heat release)" |
|
|
Term
| Range of outside temperature where alterations in blood flow alone regulate body temp? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| WBCs secrete this: it's a fever inducer (which enhances immune response) |
|
|
Term
| Ionotropic sensory receptor proteins |
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Definition
| "Are either ion channels or directly affect ion channels (mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, electrosensors)" |
|
|
Term
| Metabotropic sensory receptor proteins |
|
Definition
| "Affect ion channels through G proteins and 2o messengers (chemoreceptors, photoreceptors)" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Diminishing response to repeated stimulus. Not all sensory cells do this (mechanoreceptors for balance, eg)" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Operant --> receptor --> G-protein --> ^^ cAMP --> opens ion channel, generates action potential in sensory neuron --(ms later)--> ion channel closes, cAMP degrades" |
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Term
|
Definition
| Part of the brain: dendrites of it end in olfactory hairs on the nasal epithelium. |
|
|
Term
| Taste bud is made of what? |
|
Definition
| Microvilli coming out of a taste pore on the epithelium of the tongue. Leads to dendrites of a sensory neuron --> CNS |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Mechanoreceptor: adapts slowly, and provides *continuous* information" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mechanoreceptor: adapts quickly and provides information about changes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Mechanoreceptor: adapts slowly, and reacts to vibrating stimuli of low F" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mechanoreceptor: adapts quickly and reacts to vibrating stimuli of HIGH F |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "The ""ears"" as we know them: sound funnels" |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| "Covers the end of the auditory canal, vibrates in response to pressure waves" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Links middle ear to throat: equilibrates air pressure bwn middle ear and outside |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| "Malleus, incus, stapes (hammer, anvil, stirrup): transmit vibrations of tympanic membrane to oval window" |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Translates air pressure waves into fluid pressure waves in the inner ear |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Tapered/coiled chamber of three parallel canals separated by two membranes. In inner ear. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sits on the basilar membrane; transduces pressure waves into action potentials. In inner ear. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| "Pressure waves from the tympanic membrane --> ossicles --> oval window --> cochlea --> fluid pressure waves flex the basilar membrane at different locations, hit nerve fibers at different points, are released through round window" |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| mechanoreceptors in hearing/balance organs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Bending these opens/closes ion channels. layer of Ca crystals on top, and movements &c bend them. When the membrane depolarizes, neurotransmitters are released" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Three in mammals, at angles to each other, sense position and orientation of head" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Two chambers that sense position of head and acceleration. |
|
|
Term
| "What is rhodopsin made of, and what does one of them change into?" |
|
Definition
| "Opsin and 11-cis-retinal. It absorbs hv and changes to all-trans-retinal, which changes the conformation of opsin." |
|
|
Term
| What are rod cells made of? |
|
Definition
| A nucleus and synapse at the inner segment/base and a stack of plasma membrane disks packed with rhodopsin in the outer segment. |
|
|
Term
| What happens when rhodopsin absorbs hv? |
|
Definition
| "Activates G protein (transducin) --> PDE --> cGMP converts to GMP --> Na+ channels close , hyperpolarizing membrane -->" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The grand majority of the eye. Made of glycosaminoglycans. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Optic nerve head, where there aren't any rod/cone cells" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Tough connective tish at back of eye that becomes cornea in front. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Controls size of pupil, so how much light enters eye" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Crystalline protein, accommodates thanks to ciliary muscles, focuses image" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Photoreceptor sheet: 5 layers of cells for light to pass through to get to photoreceptors; signal comes back through all five layers to the optic nerve |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Sensitive to color; low sensitivity to light. 3 types at diff wavelengths |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Sensitive to light (night vision); low sensitivity to color |
|
|
Term
| What are the 5 functions of the urinary system? |
|
Definition
| "1) Regulate plasma ionic composition |
|
|
Term
| "Other than filter, what does the kidney do? (*4)" |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Osmolarity of ICF and ECF |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Xport from internal environment to external environment (remember, lots of things are external environment that seem inside, like the gut)" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Critters that allow their ionic composition to match the environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Those that conserve some ions and excrete others to maintain ionic composition |
|
|
Term
| Most common nitrogenous waste? |
|
Definition
| "NH3 -- but most terrestrial animals turn it to urea or uric acid (we do urea, with a little uric acid and ammonia)" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Main functional unit of the kidney. |
|
|
Term
| Process of kidney filtration of blood |
|
Definition
| Afferent arteriole --> glomerulus --> efferent arteriole (and peritubular capillaries) |
|
|
Term
| Process of urine concentration |
|
Definition
| "Filtrate from glomerulus --> renal tubule (modified by tubular cells xporting things, and peritubular capillaries bringing and taking things) --> PCT --> loop of Henle --> DCT --> collecting duct (in cortex) --> renal pelvis --> ureter --> peehole" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Bowman's capsule cells that contact the glomerular capillaries, have fine processes that wrap around them and stabilize things" |
|
|
Term
| Why is filtration rate so high in the glomerulus? |
|
Definition
| "High capillary blood pressure, and the high permeability of the glom capillaries and their podocytes." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| composition of the medulla of the kidney |
|
|
Term
| What's in the cortex of the kidney? |
|
Definition
| Glomeruli and PCTs and DCTs |
|
|
Term
| How much blood does the kidney receive? |
|
Definition
| 20% of cardiac output at rest. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Reabsorption of water and solutes. ACTIVE XPORT of Na+, glucose, AAs; water follows" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Descending limb: water flows out; Ascending limb, salt flows out (passive in thin; active in thick)" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "Filtrate entering this has the same Osm, but different composition, as plasma. Water flows out, as does some urea (recycles to the thin ascending limb)" |
|
|
Term
| T/F: Glucose is completely reabsorbed in the kidney. |
|
Definition
| "True (if all goes well), in the PCT." |
|
|
Term
| Where does the most solute reabsorption occur in the kidney? |
|
Definition
| "In the PCT. It has a leaky epithelium, making it perfect for that" |
|
|
Term
| How do kidneys regulate blood pH? |
|
Definition
| "Removes H+ and adds HCO3-. (the base portion; lungs control level of CO2, as more CO2 --> more H+)" |
|
|
Term
| What does renal failure lead to? |
|
Definition
| "Retention of salt and water (HTN), urea (uremic poisoning), metabolic acids (acidosis)" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Glomerular filtration rate. Ensures blood is kept under adequate pressure for starling forces to work |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How much is filtered a day? |
|
Definition
| 180 L/day; only 1.5L excreted! |
|
|
Term
| What effect does an increase in BP do to GFR? |
|
Definition
| Nothing: the afferent arterioles will constrict or relax to maintain GFR. |
|
|
Term
| What happens if the GFR falls? What does kidney do? What does the hypothalamus do? |
|
Definition
| "It releases renin, which activates angiotensin, which constricts EFFERENT renal arterioles/peripheral blood vessels; stimulates aldosterone to increase B77Na+ uptake (which makes you thirsty, increasing blood volume) |
|
|
Term
| Baroreceptors in aorta and carotid do what to ADH? |
|
Definition
| Inhibits it if BP increases. |
|
|
Term
| Atrial Natriuretic Peptide |
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Definition
| "Atrial muscle fibers release it when blood volume in atria increases. Decreases reabsorption of Na+, which increases loss of Na+/H2O and decreases BP." |
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