Term
| Time needed for diffusion exponentially increases with? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| In bulk flow, fluids flow from what to what? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| One way valves ensure what kind of flow? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What kind of blood vessels carry oxygenated blood away from the heart? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What kind of blood vessels carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the four main mechanisms for moving blood? |
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Definition
| 1) Heart contractions, 2) Body movements, 3) Peristalsis, 4) Elastic recoil of arteries |
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|
Term
| What is the major propulsive organ in a closed circulatory system? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Capillary walls are thin so that they can facilitate what kind of transfer? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Fluid filtering across capillary walls into the intracellular space |
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Term
| What system recovers ultrafiltrate fluid? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Where is the ultrafiltrate returned to, once it is recovered? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Most vertebrate kidneys filter what into the kidney tubules? |
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Definition
| Protein-free fluid from the blood |
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Term
| Blood is collected from the capillaries and returned to the heart by what system? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| The blood circuit that passes through the lungs is called what? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| The blood circuit that delivers oxygen to the body is called what? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What part of the heart is known as the "pacemaker"? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Do cardiac cells have a stable resting potential? |
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Definition
| No, they continuously depolarize |
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|
Term
| How does a depolarization spread in the heart? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What special kind of Calcium release do heart muscles exhibit? |
|
Definition
| Calcium-induced calcium release |
|
|
Term
| What is the fastest depolarization rate of the SA node? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the job of the AV (Atrioventriuclar) node? |
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Definition
| Delay impulses by about .1 s, allowing atria to respond and complete their contraction before ventricles contract |
|
|
Term
| What is the only electrical connection between atra and ventricles? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the sequence of excitation for the heart? |
|
Definition
| SA node->AV node->bundle of His->right and left bundle branches->Purkinje fibers |
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|
Term
| What does an ECG/EKG show? |
|
Definition
| The composite of ALL action potentials generated at a given time |
|
|
Term
| What is the term for a decrease in heart rate? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the term for an increase in heart rate? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In a healthy heart, all waves are consistent with respect to: |
|
Definition
| Size, Duration, and Timing |
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|
Term
| Variation in heart beat rhythm may indicate what? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the terms for contraction and relaxation of the heart? |
|
Definition
| Systole and diastole, respectively |
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|
Term
| Blood flow is entirely controlled by what kind of changes? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What kind of stimulus do epinephrine and norepinephrine exert on the heart? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Respiratory epithelia are designed to maximize what? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the four basic steps in vertebrate gas transfer? |
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Definition
| 1) Breathing movements, 2) Diffusion across respiratory epithelia, 3) Bulk transport (blood), 4) Diffusion between capillaries and tissue cells |
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|
Term
| Normal blood volume % of O2 is what? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Why is the blood volume % of O2 so much higher than gas laws predict (.3%)? |
|
Definition
| Hemoglobin stabilizes the O2 in the blood |
|
|
Term
| Which has a greater O2 affinity, mb or hb? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the normal range of blood plasma pH in mammals? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Name a few buffers found in human blood. |
|
Definition
| Bicarbonates, phosphates, and protein anions |
|
|
Term
| Metabolic alkalosis results in vomiting of stomach contents, which --> |
|
Definition
| Loss of chloride, and increase in bicarbonate levels and pH |
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|
Term
| Metabolic acidosis results in vomiting duodenal contents, which --> |
|
Definition
| Loss of more bicarbonate than chloride, decrease in pH |
|
|
Term
| Define anatomic dead space volume |
|
Definition
| Fresh air brought into non-respiratory tubes with inhalation (not involved in gas transfer) |
|
|
Term
| Define physiological dead space volume |
|
Definition
| Anatomic dead space volume plus air supplied to nonfunctional alveoli (or at too fast a rate) |
|
|
Term
| Define alveolar ventilation volume |
|
Definition
| volume involved in gas exchange |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Maximum volume of air that can be moved into or out of the lungs |
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|
Term
| Air moves between alveoli through what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Partial pressures of O2 and CO2 oscillate in phase with.... |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| This complex in the ventral medulla appears to set breathing rhythm |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which process in breathing is largely passive? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What chemosensory inputs modulate breathing patters? |
|
Definition
| Increased blood [CO2], increased inspiratory activity, up to threshold |
|
|
Term
| What lipoprotein complex produced by cells in the alveolar lining lowers surface tension between alveolar cells? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the five primary functions of lung surfactants? |
|
Definition
| 1) Lower surface tension, 2) Prevent compressed alveoli from sticking together, 3) Allow newborns to inflate their lungs, 4) reduce resistance to blood flow, 5) inrease osmotic pressure of lung fluid |
|
|
Term
| How can water be regulated in the body? |
|
Definition
| By moving solutes across membranes (no active pumping) |
|
|
Term
| What kind of regulation can the plasma membrane manage? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What four things can happen if a cell were to swell? |
|
Definition
| 1) May burst, 2) May disrupt tissue structure or block blood vessels, 3) intracellular concentrations may change (metabolic regulation), 4) membrane and cytoskeleton may deform (receptor and transporter function) |
|
|
Term
| How do cells protect themselves from swelling/shrinking? |
|
Definition
| Actively moving ions in and out of cells |
|
|
Term
| What can happen if a cell were to contract? |
|
Definition
| 1) Intracellular concentrations can change (metabolic regulation), 2) Membrane and cytoskeleton deform (receptor and transporter function impaired) |
|
|
Term
| How do tissues protect themselves from osmotic imbalance? |
|
Definition
| Using epithelia to line body surfaces, organs, and environmental interfaces |
|
|
Term
| Name 4 general features of epithelia |
|
Definition
| Assymetry (polarity), cell-cell junctions, cellularity, and high mitochondrial density |
|
|
Term
| What are the two kinds of epithelial transport, and how do they work? |
|
Definition
| Passive (leaky membranes allow water and solute molecules to passively diffuse through intracellular space), and active (transcellular) |
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|
Term
| Active transport of cations is usually accompanied by what, travelling in what directions? |
|
Definition
| Anions in same direction, cations in opposite direction |
|
|
Term
| Name 3 sources of water for terrestrial animals |
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Definition
| Food, drink, and metabolic production |
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|
Term
| Name 3 sources of water loss for terrestrial animals. |
|
Definition
| Urine, feces, and evaporation (lungs and skin) |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 main kinds of waste nitrogen excretion? |
|
Definition
| Ammonium, uric acid, and urea |
|
|
Term
| Name a few pros and cons of using ammonium for waste nitrogen excretion |
|
Definition
| Pros: easy to make, no C loss, transport is easy. Cons: toxic, high water requirement |
|
|
Term
| Name a few pros and cons of using uric acid for waste nitrogen excretion |
|
Definition
| Pros: low toxicity and low water requirement. Cons: High synthetic energy cost, high carbon loss, low solubility (transport costs) |
|
|
Term
| Why do mammals not produce uric acid? |
|
Definition
| Mammals lack the enzymes for its synthesis |
|
|
Term
| Name a few pros and cons of using urea for waste nitrogen excretion |
|
Definition
| Pros: immediate solubility, moderate toxicity, moderate water requirement. Cons: Synthetic energy cost, some carbon loss |
|
|
Term
| What is the role of NH3, uric acid, and urea in acid-base balance? |
|
Definition
| Increased ammonia excretion -> alkalosis, increased uric acid excretion -> acidosis, urea has no direct regulatory role |
|
|
Term
| What helps to counterbalance the osmotic effects of urea and NaCl accumulation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the maximum % of salt that can be excreted in urine? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Certain animals use a special kind of gland to balance ionic concentrations in the blood. What kind of glands are these? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What percent of cardiac output gets passed through the kidneys? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The kidneys filter the equivalent of total blood volume every how many minutes? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the functional unit of the kidney? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does urine usually contain? |
|
Definition
| Water, nitrogenous by-products, NaCl, KCl, phosphates, and excess substances |
|
|
Term
| What effect does aldosterone have on the kidneys (ie solute balance) |
|
Definition
| Regulating Na+ and K+ balance....Na+ reabsorbed and K+ excreted |
|
|
Term
| What effect does ADH (Vasopressin) have on the kidneys (ie solute balance) |
|
Definition
| Increased water retention |
|
|
Term
| What is unique about the thick segment of a nephron? |
|
Definition
| It does not permit diffusion, but facilitated transport can still be used |
|
|
Term
| What human body parts take part in mechanical processing of food? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What do the salivary glands do? |
|
Definition
| Produce amylase, lubricate, clean, and function as antibiotic for the mouth, and remineralization |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the stomach? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the midgut (small intestine)? |
|
Definition
| Chemical digestion and absorption |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the hindgut (large intestine, appendix, and rectum) |
|
Definition
| Water and ion absorption and defecation |
|
|
Term
| What are the main functions of the liver? |
|
Definition
| Produce bile (emulsifier), metabolite storage & distribution, metabolite interconversion, and poison detoxification |
|
|
Term
| What are the livers blood sources and how do they differ? |
|
Definition
| Hepatic artery (carries oxygen) and hepatic portal vein (carries nutrients) |
|
|
Term
| What are the two general products of the pancreas? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which nervous systems exhibit what kind of control over digestion? |
|
Definition
| Parasympathetic & enteric enhance digestion, sympathetic inhibits it |
|
|
Term
| The intestine's structure is designed to maximize what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How are nutrients absorbed? |
|
Definition
| Simple or facilitated diffusion, or active transport (often co-transport). There is also a special mechanism for lipids |
|
|
Term
| What is the primary chemical different between starch and cellulose? |
|
Definition
| Starch is cis, cellulose is trans |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 strategies for herbivore digestion of plants? |
|
Definition
| 1) Use cell contents only, 2) Digest cellulose with the help of symbionts, 3) digest cellulose using their own enzymes |
|
|
Term
| Symbiotic cellulose digestion generally requires: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does a foregut fermenter posses in the way of digestive organs? |
|
Definition
| Rumen, reticulum, omasum, abomasum ("stomach"), and pyloric sphincter |
|
|
Term
| What does a hindgut fermenter posses in the way of digestive organs? |
|
Definition
| Stomach and enlarged colon or cecum (or both) |
|
|
Term
| What are the advantages and disadvantages of foregut fermentation? |
|
Definition
| It is much more efficient at what it does; however, forgut fermenters can starve with a full stomach if they happen to hit a bulk patch of bad cellulose (ie grass) |
|
|
Term
| What are the advantages and disadvantages of hindgut fermentation? |
|
Definition
| It is less efficient, but "bulk digestion" is less likely to result in starvation. Also, any microbial production is lost as feces |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The animal produces both normal fecal material and a caecal pellet, which is reingested |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Name four types of nutrients |
|
Definition
| Proteins, minerals & essential elements, vitamins, and lipids |
|
|
Term
| What kind of nutrients are used in anaerobic metabolism? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What kind of nutrients are used in aerobic metabolism? |
|
Definition
| Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Proteins (usually in that order) |
|
|
Term
| What is the most important part of amino acid nutrition? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What kind of deficiencies are common in "natual" environments? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What ionic element is relatively rare to find in a natural environment, but is necessary for growth and reproduction? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An organic compound (other than nutrients) that is essential for health maintenance and production |
|
|
Term
| What kinds of deficiencies are rare in "natural" environments? |
|
Definition
| Vitamin and essential fatty acids |
|
|
Term
| What are the 4 basic functions of skeletal muscle? |
|
Definition
| Producing movement, maintaining posture, stabilizing joints, generating heat |
|
|
Term
| What kind of movement occurs when a muscle contracts? |
|
Definition
| Movable bone moves towards immovable bone (insertion moves to origin) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Force exerted on object by muscle contraction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Force exerted on muscle by weight of object |
|
|
Term
| What is the name for a neuron that controls a muscle fiber combined with the fibers it is controlling? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What kind of motor units exert fine control and what kind are imprecise? |
|
Definition
| Small and large motor units, respectively |
|
|
Term
| Stimulation of a single motor unit in a muscle causes: |
|
Definition
| A weak contraction of the entire muscle |
|
|
Term
| What is wave summation, and what does it do? |
|
Definition
| Second contraction starts before completion of the first, allows production of smooth continuous muscle contractions |
|
|
Term
| What is tetanus? (not the disease) |
|
Definition
| Smooth sustained contraction |
|
|
Term
| Why are motor units usually activated asynchronously? |
|
Definition
| Wave summation cannot occur if all motor units are activated simultaneously |
|
|
Term
| What are the two ways of controlling force of contraction? |
|
Definition
| Multiple motor unit summation or increasing voltage to muscle |
|
|
Term
| What is the Treppe effect, and why is it seen? |
|
Definition
| Initial contractions are weaker than later ones with identical stimuli. This is because, in the later contractions, there is already increased Ca2+ in the sarcoplasm and increased heat (greater ATPase efficiency) |
|
|
Term
| Define isotonic and isometric muscle contraction |
|
Definition
| Isotonic - muscle changes in length and moves load. Isometric - tension increases but muscle length remains constant |
|
|
Term
| Give an example of both isotonic and isometric contraction being used in a single muscle movement. |
|
Definition
| Squats. Movement going up or down would be isotonic, but holding the squat would be isometric |
|
|
Term
| Force of contraction is affected by what 4 things? |
|
Definition
| 1) Number of muscle fibers contracting, 2) Relative size of the muscle, 3) Series-elastic elements, 4) Degree of muscle stretch |
|
|
Term
| What are series-elastic elements? |
|
Definition
| Non-contractile elements that stretch and recoil (ie. connective tissues and tendons) |
|
|
Term
| What 3 factors determine the velocity and duration of contraction? |
|
Definition
| 1) Fiber type, 2) Load, 3) Recruitment |
|
|
Term
| What kinds of changes are seen in response to aerobic exercise? |
|
Definition
| # capillaries around fibers increases, # mitochondria in fibers increase, myoglobin synthesis increases (this is all especially true for slow oxidative fibers). Hypertrophy is mostly in cardiac muscle |
|
|
Term
| What kinds of changes are seen in response to anaerobic exercise? |
|
Definition
| # mitochondria increase, # myofilaments & myofibrils increase, glycogen stores increase, connective tissue increases, cells hypertrophy |
|
|
Term
| What are the intervals of heart contraction? |
|
Definition
|
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