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Physiology Lecture Test 2
All quizzes up to and including test 2
296
Physiology
Undergraduate 1
02/29/2012

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Term
What are the different parts of a neuron?
Definition
Soma (cell body)
Axons
Axon terminals
Dendrites
Term
Term: Initial segment of an axon
Definition
Axon hillock
Term
What processes occur at the axon hillock?
Definition
It's the trigger zone where electrical signals are generated and run processes
Term
Which part of the neuron increases the influence of that neuron?
Definition
Axon collaterals
Term
What is the function of the axon terminal?
Definition
It releases neurotransmitters that diffuse across the cleft, and binds to receptors on postsynaptic side of synapse
Term
Some neurons use ___ ___ to release neurotransmitters, rather than the axon terminal
Definition
Bulging varicosities
Term
What is the myelin sheath made of?
Definition
Lipid
Term
Neurons are covered by ___ ___
Definition
Myelin Sheathe
Term
What is myelin sheathe produced from?
Definition
Schwann cells in Peripheral Nervous System
Term
Term: Spaces between sections of myelin
Definition
Nodes of ranvier
Term
How does the action potential move?
Definition
Jumps along nodes of ranvier
Term
Some chemicals are picked up at terminals and brought to the soma, including...?
Definition
Herpes and Polioviruses
Term
Term: Neuron that brings signals from tissues to the CNS
Definition
Afferent neuron
Term
Term: Neurons that lie within the CNS
Definition
Interneurons
Term
Term: Neuron that bring signals from the CNS to the effectors (muscle fibers)
Definition
Efferent neuron
Term
Term: Junction between neurons where 1 neuron alters the activity of a 2nd neuron, usually by neurotransmitter
Definition
Synapse
Term
The Central Nervous System is made of what?
Definition
10% neurons
90% glial cells
Term
What is the function of glial cells?
Definition
Support neurons
Form myelin sheath
Regulate CSF and extracellular fluid composition
Term
True/False: Cell division of neurons is much slower after birth
Definition
True
Term
Term: Electric force of attraction between positive and negative charges increases with amount of charge and decreases distance between
Definition
Membrane Potential
Term
Term: Electrical impulse
Definition
Action potential
Term
Describe the membrane of a membrane potential
Definition
Lipid bilayer with special proteins regulating ion movement, creates action potential
Term
How do sodium and potassium ions cross the membrane?
Definition
Ion channels
Term
What are the three types of ion channels?
Definition
Passive ion channel
Chemically activated ion channel
Voltage activated ion channel
Term
Where are passive ion channels found?
Definition
All areas of neurons
Term
Where are chemically activated ion channels found?
Definition
Mainly soma and dendrites
Term
Chemically activated ion channels are also called what?
Definition
Receptors
Term
What happens in chemically activated ion channels?
Definition
Neurotransmitters bind to sites and open gates to start flow
Term
Where are voltage activated ion channels found?
Definition
On axon and soma membranes
Term
What is the function of voltage activated ion channels?
Definition
Open when detect certain voltage; responsible for generating/propagating action potential
Term
What causes the ion movement and membrane potential?
Definition
Difference in electrical charge or ion concentration between one side and other side of membrane (concentration gradient)
Term
What does the negative in front of the numbers of membrane potential voltage mean?
Definition
The inside is more negative than the outside
Term
What does membrane potential cause?
Definition
Move of ions or electrons
Term
Term: Flow of ions
Definition
Ionic current, I (units: amps)
Term
Term: Overall effect of all ion channels for given ion
Definition
Membrane conductance of ion
Term
At rest, describe the concentrations inside and outside neurons
Definition
Inside: Relatively high potassium concentration, low sodium concentration
Outside: Relatively low potassium concentration, high sodium concentration
Term
What are the functions of the potassium and sodium concentration gradients?
Definition
K+: Causes potassium to diffuse out of neuron through potassium channels

Na+: Causes Na+ to diffuse into neuron through sodium channels
Term
How is the gradient to retain sodium and potassium levels maintained?
Definition
Sodium-Potassium ATPase pump
Term
What is the function of the Na-K ATPase pump?
Definition
Moves Na+ out, K+ in (against gradient)
Term
If the concentration of potassium = the concentration of large proteins and amino acids, initially before diffusion, what is the net charge?
Definition
None
Term
What happens when the potassium begins to diffuse out?
Definition
The inside becomes more negative than outside
Term
What happens when the number of charged ions differs in vs. out?
Definition
Electrical potential forms and ions attracted to region with opposite charge in attracts potassium back into cell
Term
What happens as more potassium ions leave the cell?
Definition
Greater electrical force develops until electrical force draws potassium into cell at the same rate that it leaves the cell due to the concentration gradient
Term
For a cell with only K+ and A-, the membrane potential equals what?
Definition
EK+
Term
What other ions, aside from K+, affect membrane potential?
Definition
Na+, Cl-
Term
Term: Change in voltage of membrane potential from - to + briefly
Definition
Action potential
Term
What is the voltage of membrane potential at its resting period?
Definition
-60 or -70 mV
Term
What happens as the membrane potential becomes more positive?
Definition
Depolarization occurs, reaches threshold (-45 mV), and the rising phase occurs and reaches the peak at +30 mV, then repolarizes and becomes more negative
Term
Term: More negative than resting potential
Definition
Hyperpolarization
Term
What are the voltage changes in action potential caused by?
Definition
Open and closing voltage sensitive ion channels that control sodium in and potassium out
Term
What happens when the voltage of a voltage-activated ion channel reaches threshold?
Definition
Ion channel gates open, and ions flow
Term
What are the three states of sodium channel operation?
Definition
Resting state
Activating state
Inactivating state
Term
Sodium channels activate and inactivate due to...?
Definition
2 separate gates opening and closing independently
Term
What do the properties of sodium channels depend on?
Definition
Voltage
Time
Term
What else does the voltage threshold do?
Definition
Opens voltage-sensitive potassium channels, and there is no inactive gate in potassium channels
Term
Describe potassium channels
Definition
They open slower than sodium channels and remain open until they sense a certain voltage
Term
True/False: Closing potassium gates are time and voltage-dependent
Definition
False, they are only voltage-dependent
Term
What happens to potassium channels when the membrane is depolarized?
Definition
Potassium channels remain in an open state and only close once the membrane is repolarized
Term
What happens when many sodium channels in the axon membrane are activated?
Definition
An influx of sodium ions is caused which causes membrane potential to increase and produces a gradual depolarization of membrane up to threshold (-45 mV); the more channels activated, the more sodium influx, which depolarizes the membrane still more
Term
What is the process of the influx of sodium ions causing the membrane to become more and more depolarized?
Definition
The basis of rapid rising phase once threshold is reached
Term
What happens at the peak of depolarization?
Definition
The membrane is much more permeable to sodium than potassium, but after the peak inactive channels start to close and sodium influx is blocked and membrane potential begins to repolarize and K+>Na+
Term
What happens when there is a potassium efflux?
Definition
A repolarization occurs and then a removal of + charges causes hyperpolarization and finally a resting state when potassium channels close
Term
Term: Time period just after start of action potential, axon cannot start a second action potential regardless of how much membrane is depolarized
Definition
Absolute refractory period
Term
How long does the absolute refractory period last?
Definition
1 msec
Term
What causes the absolute refractory period?
Definition
Sodium inactivate gates closed and are not reset
Term
Term: After the absolute refractory period, the axon can start a second action potential, but only if depolarization is greater than normal (higher threshold)
Definition
Relative refractory period
Term
Term: Time interval limiting fastest frequent axon can generate action potentials
Definition
Absolute Refractory Period
Term
Describe the movement of an action potential
Definition
Once the AP begins, it propagates (moves) down. The 1st membrane region begins the action potential and a sodium influx occurs. The removal of sodium from adjacent regions causes them to depolarize and begin an action potential in the second region
Term
True/False: Action potentials travel at constant speeds
Definition
True
Term
What is velocity proportional to in unmyelinated neurons?
Definition
Diameter of neuron fiber
Term
What is velocity proportional to in myelinated neurons?
Definition
Diameter of axon
Distance between nodes of Ranvier
Term
Term: Jumping motion of AP from one node to the next
Definition
Saltatory Conduction
Term
True/False: The bigger the stimulus, the larger an AP gets
Definition
False. APs are all the same size regardless of stimulus size
Term
Term: First three stimuluses
Definition
Subthresholds
Term
Describe the 4th-7th stimuluses
Definition
These continue stronger, but APs are same size because they occur maximally or not at all
Term
What happens to a small stimulus if it doesn't reach threshold?
Definition
It decays
Term
True/False: Electrical synapses transmit information in both directions
Definition
True
Term
True/False: Chemical synapses flow both directions
Definition
False, only flows one way towards synaptic cleft
Term
Which is faster, a chemical or electrical synapse?
Definition
Electrical
Term
Term: Synapse if membrane is closer to threshold
Definition
Excitatory synapse
Term
Term: Synapse if membrane is farther from threshold
Definition
Inhibitory synapse
Term
Term: Many synapses affecting 1 postsynaptic neuron so info from many cells can affect that neuron's activity
Definition
Convergence
Term
Term: 1 Presynaptic neuron sharing information with many postsynaptic neurons
Definition
Divergence
Term
What is the synaptic cleft's function?
Definition
Prevents direct flow of ions through chemical synapses
Term
Term: Synapse used for communication between distant cells
Definition
Predominant synapse
Term
Term: Neuron where the chemical signal is produced
Definition
Presynaptic neuron
Term
Term: Neuron which acts as the target cell and receives the chemical signal
Definition
Postsynaptic neuron
Term
What happens to neurotransmitters?
Definition
Once they are released, they diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors in the postsynaptic neuron
Term
How are neurotransmitters released?
Definition
Synaptic vesicles containing the neurotransmitters fuse to the presynaptic membrane to release
Term
What are the three types of chemical synapses?
Definition
Axodendritic synapse
Axoaxonic synapse
Axosomatic synapse
Term
What are the four phases of synaptic transmission?
Definition
Synthesis of neurotransmitter
Storage and release
Interaction between transmitter and postsynaptic receptor
Termination of synaptic transmission
Term
What occurs during the synthesis of neurotransmitters?
Definition
Each type is packaged and stored in vesicles near the cleft
Term
What occurs during the storage and release of neurotransmitters?
Definition
These are released when an action potential activates the voltage-sensitive calcium channels where there is an influx of calcium ions
Term
What causes the neurotransmitters to be released from synaptic vesicles?
Definition
Calcium ions
Term
What does the number of vesicles fusing in synaptic termination depend on?
Definition
Calcium concentration
Term
Term: Number of ions flowing through channel at a time
Definition
Single channel current
Term
Term: Sum of all single channel currents through membrane
Definition
Synaptic current
Term
Term: Flow of synaptic current resulting from release of neurotransmitter from 1 vesicle causing a change in membrane permeability
Definition
Unitary Postsynaptic Potential
Term
Term: Action potentials formed from excited neurons acted upon by unitary postsynaptic potentials that act together to depolarize the membrane
Definition
EPSPs
Term
Term: Postsynaptic potentials that tend to prevent (inhibit) neurons from starting APs
Definition
IPSPs
Term
How are IPSPs produced?
Definition
The synaptic activation of the receptor opening potassium channels only causing potassium efflux, so the inside loses + and becomes more -, casing the membrane potential to become hyperpolarized, causing an IPSP to develop
Term
Term: Stimulus occurring before the 1st EPSP dies away, and the two are added together
Definition
Temporal sum
Term
Term: Two inputs at different locations, which are along too small but add together to activate threshold
Definition
Spatial sum
Term
During the following phases, tell how much each sodium gate is open

Resting phase
Slow-rising phase
Rapid-rising phase
Repolarization
Hyperpolarization
Definition
Resting: 0%
Slow-rising: 50%
Rapid-rising: 100%
Repolarization: 50%
Hyperpolarization: 0%
Term
During the following phases, tell how much each potassium gate is open

Resting phase
Slow-rising phase
Rapid-rising phase
Repolarization
Hyperpolarization
Definition
Resting: 0%
Slow-rising: 0%
Rapid-rising: 50%
Repolarization: 100%
Hyperpolarization: 50%
Term
What are the two ways that termination of a synaptic transmitter can occur?
Definition
Transmitter is pumped back into presynaptic terminals by re-uptake mechanism
OR
Transmitter is removed by degrading enzymes and products are carried to the presynaptic terminal
Term
Term: After transmitter is back in the presynaptic terminal, it is packaged again and moved into vesicles for storage
Definition
Recycling
Term
Term: Synapses which release a transmitter from restricted areas of presynaptic terminal (active zones)
Definition
Discrete chemical synapses
Term
Give an example of a discrete chemical synapse
Definition
Junction between neuron and muscle cells
Term
Term: Synapses which their release is not limited to active zones; they form a "chain of beads," and exist as an extension of the axon, activating a large surface area of 1 or many cells
Definition
Diffuse chemical synapses
Term
Give an example of a diffuse chemical synapse
Definition
Terminals of sympathetic neurons
Term
What are the two groups neurotransmitters are classified into?
Definition
Low molecular weight transmitters
Neuropeptides
Term
Where are Low-molecular-weight transmitters synthesized?
Definition
Presynaptic terminals
Term
Where are neuropeptides synthesized?
Definition
In the soma, and moved to presynaptic terminals
Term
Name the six low-molecular-weight neurotransmitters
Definition
Acetylcholine
Dopamine
Nonepinephrine
Serotonin
Glutamate
GABA
Term
Term: Chemical transmitter between nerves and muscle
Definition
Acetylcholine
Term
What is ACh made from?
Definition
Acetyl CoA + Choline with the enzyme Acetylcholinesterase
Term
What are the two types of postsynaptic receptors that ACh binds with?
Definition
Nicotinic
Muscarinic
Term
Term: Receptor sensitive to nicotine
Definition
Nicotinic receptor
Term
Term: Receptor sensitive to the drug muscarine
Definition
Muscarinic receptor
Term
What happens once ACh uncouples from its receptor?
Definition
Ion channels close and sodium and potassium can no longer pass through
Term
What happens when ACh binds with AChE in the gap?
Definition
ACh is degraded to Choline and Acetate
Term
What happens when ACh is broken down into Choline and Acetate?
Definition
Choline is then taken up into the presynaptic terminal and recycled to produce ACh
Term
Give some examples of biogenic amines (including catecholamines)
Definition
Dopamine
Epinephrine
Nonepinephrine
Term
Describe the synthesis of Epinephrine, which begins the same as Dopamine synthesis
Definition
Tyrosine -> L-Dopa -> Dopamine -> NE -> Epinephrine
Term
What happens after dopamine uncouples from its receptor?
Definition
80% is taken up into the presynaptic terminal for recycling, the other 20% is degraded by COMT
Term
What two drugs greatly affect dopamine?
Definition
Cocaine
Amphetamine
Term
How does cocaine affect dopamine?
Definition
Inhibits re-uptake of dopamine into terminal
Term
How does amphetamine affect dopamine?
Definition
Increases the release of dopamine into cleft
Term
Term: Neurotransmitter that increases cheerfulness and sexual desire, especially if neurons are located in the septal area of the limbic system
Definition
Dopamine
Term
Term: Pleasure center of brain
Definition
Septal area of the limbic system
Term
What causes Parkinson's disease?
Definition
Lack of dopamine
Term
What are the symptoms of Parkinson's disease?
Definition
Tremors of arms and legs
Difficult stop/start walking
Shuffling
Muffled speech
Expressionless
Term
What happened to some Parkinson's patients when given dopamine?
Definition
Some went from wheelchair to skiing and golfing!
Term
Term: 2nd catecholamine at the junction of neuron and small muscles in ANS, synthesized from dopamine
Definition
Nonepinephrine
Term
What happens to nonepinephrine when it uncouples from its receptor?
Definition
80% re-uptake
20% degraded by COMT
Term
Serotonin is also known as...?
Definition
5-Hydroxtryptamine (5-HT)
Term
True/False: Serotonin is not a catechol
Definition
True
Term
Term: Biogenic amine found throughout brain and is synthesized in the brain stem
Definition
Serotonin
Term
True/False: Dopamine-releasing neurons innervate nearly all structures in brain and spinal cord
Definition
False. Saratonin-releasing neurons do this
Term
What effect does serotonin have on paths controlling muscles and control sensations?
Definition
Excitatory effect on muscle paths

Inhibitory effect on control sensation paths
Term
When is serotonin activity lowest and highest?
Definition
Lowest: During sleep

Highest: States of alertful wakefulness
Term
What do serotonin paths regulate?
Definition
Food intake
Reproductive behavior
Emotional states of mood and anxiety
Term
What happens once serotonin uncouples from its receptor?
Definition
80% goes through re-uptake
20% degraded by MAO enzyme
Term
Which neurotransmitters are amino acids?
Definition
Glutamate
GABA
Term
Term: Very potent excitatory transmitter (amino acid)
Definition
Glutamate
Term
What does GABA stand for?
Definition
Gamma amino butyric acid
Term
Term: Potent inhibitory transmitter made from glutamate
Definition
GABA
Term
What occurs when GABA binds to its receptor?
Definition
An influx of chlorine atoms into neuron occurs and membrane permeability is hyperpolarized, inhibits 2nd neuron
Term
Term: Products of soma; transmitters made of chains of amino acids
Definition
Neuropeptides
Term
How is the processing of neuropeptides different from low-molecular-weight transmitters?
Definition
Made in soma, not presynaptic terminal

Made when large proteins called polypeptides are broken down
Term
True/False: Certain neuropeptides are endogenous opinoids that have receptors at the sites of action of opiates morphine and codine
Definition
True
Term
Term: These relieve pain without a loss of consciousness; opiates are an example
Definition
Analgesics
Term
What are some functions of opiates?
Definition
Jogger's high
Eating/drinking behavior
Regulation of cardiovascular system
Regulation of mood and emotion
Term
True/False: Like low-molecular-weight transmitters, neuropeptides participate in re-uptake as well
Definition
False, they do not
Term
What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?
Definition
Central Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System
Term
What are the right and left cerebral hemispheres connected by?
Definition
Massive bundles of fibers called the corpus callosum
Term
Term: Tiny, master command center for neural and endocrine coordination
Definition
Hypothalamus
Term
What is the function of the limbic system?
Definition
Associated with learning
Coordinated with hypothalamus to control behavior and endocrine responses
Term
What are the two divisions of the peripheral nervous system?
Definition
Afferent - Sensory
Efferent - Motor
Term
What are the two divisions of the motor nervous system?
Definition
Somatic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system
Term
What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
Definition
Sympathetic division
Parasympathetic division
Term
Describe the Sympathetic division
Definition
Fight or flight;
Short preganglion neuron,
Long postganglion neuron;
Leaves CNS at Thoracic and Lumbar levels
Term
What are some effects of the sympathetic division?
Definition
Speed heart
Dilates pupil
Inhibits digestion
Term
Describe the parasympathetic division
Definition
Long preganglion neuron,
Short postganglion neuron;
Leaves CNS at brain and sacrum (Craniosacral)
Term
What are some effects of the parasympathetic division?
Definition
Digestion/content
Slows heart
Constricts pupil
Term
The somatic, parasympathetic, and the sympathetic (preganglion) all use ACh, but the sympathetic postganglion uses ___
Definition
Norepinephrine
Term
Brain tissue depends on a constant supply of ____ and ____
Definition
Glucose
Oxygen
Term
What is the function of CSF and where is it formed?
Definition
Formed in the ventricles;
Bathes brain ventricles and space within meninges
Term
Term: Neural paths in sensory systems; bundles of three neuron chains
Definition
Sensory pathway or Ascending paths
Term
Term: One afferent neuron with all receptor endings
Definition
Sensory unit
Term
Term: Body area that when stimulated, starts APs in certain afferent neurons
Definition
Receptive field
Term
Term: Ascending paths in spinal cord that carry only one type of sensory information
Definition
Specific ascending paths
Term
Where do somatic receptors (in the skin, skeletal muscle, and tendons) send information to?
Definition
Somatosensory cortex in parietal lobe
Term
Where do the eyes send information to?
Definition
Visual cortical
Term
Where do the ear paths send information to?
Definition
Auditory cortical
Term
Term: Ascending paths activated by different types of stimulus that give general information
Definition
Nonspecific ascending paths
Term
Where do the cortical association areas lie?
Definition
Adjacent to, as well as outside of the primary cortical sensory (or motor) areas
Term
What is the role of the associated cortical areas?
Definition
Complex analysis of incoming information with more complicated processing farther out from primary sensory areas
Term
What are the four aspects of stimulus that sensory systems code for?
Definition
Type
Intensity
Location
Duration
Term
Term: General sense that a sense receptor codes for
Definition
Modality
Term
Term: Specific area of a sense that a receptor codes for
Definition
Submodality
Term
What is the intensity of a stimulus coded by?
Definition
Rate of firing of individual sensory units and by number of sensory units activated
Term
What does the perception of a stimulus location depend on?
Definition
Size of receptive field covered by one sensory unit and on overlap of nearby receptive fields
Term
Term: Means by which ascending paths emphasize wanted information and increase sensory activity; more important in localization of stimulus than size of receptive field
Definition
Lateral inhibition
Term
What are some of the senses that somatic receptors sense?
Definition
Touch
Pressure
Temperature
Pain
Awareness of body positions
Term
Term: Receptors that code for limb position
Definition
Proprioceptors
Term
Describe the anterolateral column path
Definition
From pain/temperature receptor -> spinal cord -> thalamus -> Somato sensory cortex
Term
Describe the dorsal column path
Definition
From vibration/joint position receptor -> brain stem -> thalamus -> Somato sensory cortex
Term
How is the somato sensory cortex organized?
Definition
Topographically;
Ends of somatic paths are grouped by location of receptors of path origin
Term
What are the two types of receptors for temperature?
Definition
Warmth receptors
Nociceptors
Term
What do warmth receptors respond to?
Definition
30-43 degrees Celsius
Term
What do nociceptors respond to?
Definition
Temperatures greater than 43 degrees celsius and pain (cuts and chemicals as well as tissue damage)
Term
Term: Cause by activation of interneurons by incoming nociceptor neurons; pain sensation experienced at site other than injured site
Definition
Referred pain
Term
What is the function of the optical part and the neural part of the eye?
Definition
Optical - focuses image on receptor
neural - transforms visual part into APs
Term
What is the lens shape changed by?
Definition
Ciliary muscles -> suspensory ligaments
Term
The lens focuses an image ideally onto the...?
Definition
Fovea centralis
Term
The lens and cornea bend light by...?
Definition
Refraction
Term
Term: Adjustments for near/far vision
Definition
Accommodations
Term
What type of lens is needed for near-sightedness?
Definition
Concave
Term
What type of lens is needed for far-sightedness?
Definition
Convex
Term
Term: Opacity of lens, common with age
Definition
Cataracts
Term
Term: Lens/cornea lacks smoothly spherical surface
Definition
Astigmatism
Term
Term: Unable to focus distant objects; near-sightedness
Definition
Myopia
Term
Term: Unable to focus near objects; far-sightedness
Definition
Hyperopia
Term
Term: Photoreceptor cell used for color and high definition vision
Definition
Cone
Term
Term: Photoreceptor cell used for black and white vision
Definition
Rod
Term
What are cones and rods made of?
Definition
Opsin (protein) and retinal
Term
What are the four types of photoreceptors?
Definition
3 different types of cones
Rods
Term
Why are rods and the three types of cones sensitive to different wavelengths?
Definition
They are each made of different opsins
Term
What happens to the rods and cones in your eyes in the dark?
Definition
They are depolarized so there is an increase in neurotransmitter release
Term
What happens when light reaches the retina?
Definition
There is a shape change and series of events leading to hyperpolarization of rods and cones and a decrease in the release of neurotransmitters from them
Term
Where do rods and cones synapse?
Definition
On bipolar cells, which in turn synapse on ganglion cells
Term
Describe the path from the optic neurons
Definition
Optic neurons cross over to form the optic chiasma -> Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) in thalamus which sends neuron fibers to visual cortex and suprachiasmatic nucleus of hypothalamus clock
Term
What are the 3 cone sensitivities?
Definition
420 nm
531 nm
558 nm
Term
How many skeletal muscles move the eye, and what are the muscles' functions?
Definition
6;

Keep fixation point focused on fovea and move eyes during accomodation
Term
What are the three small bones located in the ear?
Definition
Malleus
Incus
Stapes
Term
Sound wave frequency determines __
Definition
Pitch
Term
Sound wave amplitude determines __
Definition
Loudness
Term
What happens in the ear that causes AP to be generated?
Definition
Bending of stereocilia
Term
What happens when sound waves move the oval window?
Definition
Pressure waves are set up in the fluid-filled scala vestibli, which causes vibrations in cochlear duct fluid which then vibrates the stereocilia within the organ of Corti
Term
What structure in the ear releases neurotransmitters?
Definition
Stereocilia
Term
What happens as the frequency of sound is lowered?
Definition
Vibrations go farther out membrane
Term
What happens when the stereocilia on hair cells bend?
Definition
Ion channels in cell membrane of hair cell open, causing a depolarization of membrane and creates receptor potential. The depolarization causes a release of the neurotransmitter glutamate
Term
Where is the vestibular system located?
Definition
Below temporal bones
Term
What does the vestibular system consist of?
Definition
3 semicircular canals
Utricle
Saccule
Term
What is the function of semicircular ducts?
Definition
Detect angular acceleration during head rotation which bends hair cells
Term
Term: Stones within hair cells that respond to change in position
Definition
Otoliths
Term
What is the function of otoliths?
Definition
Pull against hair cells and bend cilia causing a depolarization and then a hyperpolarization
Term
Term: Illusion of movement causing nausea
Definition
Vertigo
Term
Term: Receptors for specific chemicals
Definition
Chemoreceptors
Term
Term: Taste receptors
Definition
Taste buds
Term
How many receptor cells does a single taste bud have?
Definition
100
Term
What are the five basic groups of taste buds?
Definition
Umami
Sweet
Sour
Salty
Bitter
Term
Describe the path that taste sensory information takes
Definition
Brain stem (Medulla oblongata) -> Gustatory nucleus -> thalamus -> gustatory area of neocortex
Term
Term: Result of activation of olfactory receptor cells in nasal sinuses
Definition
Smell
Term
The olfactory area stimulates ___ and plays a role in __ ___
Definition
Eating
Mating behaviors
Term
Skeletal muscle is attached to bones by ___
Definition
Tendons
Term
Term: Muscle cell
Definition
Fiber
Term
What are muscle fibers made of?
Definition
Sarcomeres, thick and thin filaments and crossbridges
Term
Term: Striated, involuntary muscle with interculated disks
Definition
Cardiac muscle
Term
Term: Area in muscle without intercellular space that allows tissue of many cells to function as if it were one large cell
Definition
Interculated disk
Term
Term: Unstriated (without obvious sarcomeres), involuntary muscle
Definition
Smooth muscle
Term
Term: Any form of muscle activity with respect to stimulus, whether muscle shortens or not
Definition
Contraction
Term
Term: Contraction where muscle does not do any shortening, but develops force or tension while pulling against some immovable object
Definition
Isometric contraction
Term
Term: Contraction where force in muscle remains constant as muscle shortens
Definition
Isotonic contraction
Term
Term: Contraction in which force continually increases as muscle shortens
Definition
Auxotonic contraction
Term
Term: One stimulus to skeletal muscle sets off a series of electrical and chemical events
Definition
Muscle twitch
Term
What is the mechanical factor with the most effect on isometric contraction
Definition
Length at which muscle is held
Term
What is the optimal length?
Definition
Sarcomere III
Term
Stretching a muscle descreases the amount of ___
Definition
Overlap
Term
Describe the use of calcium in muscle contraction
Definition
An AP causes calcium to be released from the Sarcoplasmic reticulum, calcium binds to troponin, tropomyosin shifts and crossbridges form, the heads rotate and the muscle shortens
Term
What happens if calcium is removed from muscle contraction?
Definition
The muscle relaxes
Term
What happens if ATP is removed from muscle contraction?
Definition
Rigor mortis
Term
Where is calcium used for muscle contraction stored?
Definition
Terminal cisternae in the sarcoplasmic reticulum
Term
Describe the flow of calcium for muscle contraction
Definition
Terminal cisternae in sarcoplasmic reticulum -> thick/thin filaments -> uptake into longitudinal elements of sarcoplasmic reticulum -> terminal cisternae
Term
Term: Lag period before muscle lifts
Definition
Latent period
Term
Term: When stimulus reaches the muscle with load, it produces isometric first as muscle struggles to lift load but there is no muscle shortening
Definition
Mixed contraction
Term
A muscle is known as entirely isotonic only if...?
Definition
There is no load at all
Term
A muscle is known as entirely isometric only if...?
Definition
Afterload is more than what muscles can lift
Term
The lighter the load...?
The heavier the load...?
Definition
Sooner it can be lifted;
Less the muscle can shorten
Term
Term: Rate of doing work; force x velocity
Definition
Power output
Term
What happens at the max force muscle can attain?
Definition
Power output = 0 because isometric muscle doesn't shorten
Term
What happens to the power output when there is no load?
Definition
Muscle shortening is most rapid but no force is exerted so power output = 0
Term
When is the power output at its max?
Definition
When force is set at 30% of max load
Term
Term: Tubules in muscles that function in diffusion
Definition
Transverse tubular system
Term
Term: Skeletal/Cardiac muscle responds to 1 stimulus with single AP
Definition
Twitch
Term
What limits the force of a muscle twitch?
Definition
Fast calcium uptake
Term
Can muscles be restimulated before relaxation is complete?
Definition
Yes, result = summation
Term
Term: Sustained contraction with much more force than a twitch; repeated stimulus that keeps muscles from relaxing completely if constant supply of calcium
Definition
Tetanus
Term
Term: Stimulus spaced relatively far apart, with force rising and falling between stimuli
Definition
Partial (unfused) tetanus
Term
Term: Close stimuli that keeps force steady
Definition
Complete (fused) tetanus
Term
Term: Lowest frequency to produce fused tetanus
Definition
Tetonic fusion frequency
Term
What is the tetonic fusion frequency for skeletal muscle?
Definition
20-40 times per second
Term
What are the most useful contractions?
Definition
A mix of twitches and partly fused tetanic contractions
Term
According to muscle contractions, how is cardiac muscle different from skeletal muscle?
Definition
Cardiac muscle is a twitch-only type of muscle
Term
How do drugs affect muscle contraction of cardiac muscle?
Definition
Increase overall supply of calcium, in which more is released with each beat

Calcium blockers can reduce strength of contractions
Term
How does epinephrine affect cardiac muscle contraction?
Definition
Increases strength of contraction by accumulating amount of internal calcium, making contractions more times per minute and stronger
Term
What two factors determine tension produced by whole muscle contraction?
Definition
Force developed by each fiber
Number of active fibers in each muscle
Term
Describe muscles that produce delicate movements
Definition
Small number of fibers per unit
Term
Describe muscles that are large and produce less delicate movements
Definition
Large number of fibers per unit
Term
Strength and susceptibility to fatigue of a muscle can be reduced by ___
Definition
Exercise
Term
How does long-duration, low-intensity (aerobic) exercise decrease susceptibility to fatigue?
Definition
Increases fibers and capacity for ATP production by increasing number of mitochondria and blood vessels in muscle; resulting in greater endurance
Term
How does short-duration, high-intensity (anaerobic) exercise increase muscle strength?
Definition
Increases fiber diameter due to increased synthesis of actin/myosin, resulting in increased strength, but fatigue quickly
Term
Term: Decline in muscle force as a result of previous contractions
Definition
Muscle fatigue
Term
What are the three factors that determine the onset of fatigue
Definition
Type of fiber
Intensity and duration of contractions
Level of fitness
Term
What are the two ways muscles can be fatigued?
Definition
Conduction failure
Lactic acid build-up
Term
Term: Muscle AP fails to be conducted in T-tubules, stops calcium release from terminal cisternae
Definition
Conduction failure
Term
Term: High proton concentration alters calcium release and function of calcium-ATPase pumps of S.R.
Definition
Lactic acid build up
Term
True/False: One important type of fatigue is called Central Command Fatigue and has to do with the "will to win"
Definition
True
Term
True/False: The central nervous system and peripheral nervous system can act independently
Definition
False
Term
Sensory neurons form __ __ by connecting with intrafusal muscle fibers deep inside the muscle
Definition
Muscle spindles
Term
Term: Length detectors; act as strength receptors; increase rate of APs when intrafusal fibers stretch
Definition
Muscle spindles
Term
Term: 2nd type of muscle receptor; connected to tendons and send out info about force produced by contraction; tension receptors
Definition
Golgi Tendon Organs
Term
As greater force develops during contraction, Golgi Tendon Organs generate ___ APs
Definition
More
Term
What information do muscle spindles and GTOs send to the spinal cord, which in turn sends this information to the somatic sensory cortex or within the spinal cord for reflex action
Definition
Information about muscle force, velocity and length
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