Term
| What are the different parts of a neuron? |
|
Definition
Soma (cell body)
Axons
Axon terminals
Dendrites |
|
|
Term
| Term: Initial segment of an axon |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What processes occur at the axon hillock? |
|
Definition
| It's the trigger zone where electrical signals are generated and run processes |
|
|
Term
| Which part of the neuron increases the influence of that neuron? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the axon terminal? |
|
Definition
| It releases neurotransmitters that diffuse across the cleft, and binds to receptors on postsynaptic side of synapse |
|
|
Term
| Some neurons use ___ ___ to release neurotransmitters, rather than the axon terminal |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the myelin sheath made of? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Neurons are covered by ___ ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is myelin sheathe produced from? |
|
Definition
| Schwann cells in Peripheral Nervous System |
|
|
Term
| Term: Spaces between sections of myelin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How does the action potential move? |
|
Definition
| Jumps along nodes of ranvier |
|
|
Term
| Some chemicals are picked up at terminals and brought to the soma, including...? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Neuron that brings signals from tissues to the CNS |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Neurons that lie within the CNS |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Neuron that bring signals from the CNS to the effectors (muscle fibers) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Junction between neurons where 1 neuron alters the activity of a 2nd neuron, usually by neurotransmitter |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The Central Nervous System is made of what? |
|
Definition
10% neurons
90% glial cells |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of glial cells? |
|
Definition
Support neurons
Form myelin sheath
Regulate CSF and extracellular fluid composition |
|
|
Term
| True/False: Cell division of neurons is much slower after birth |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Electric force of attraction between positive and negative charges increases with amount of charge and decreases distance between |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Describe the membrane of a membrane potential |
|
Definition
| Lipid bilayer with special proteins regulating ion movement, creates action potential |
|
|
Term
| How do sodium and potassium ions cross the membrane? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the three types of ion channels? |
|
Definition
Passive ion channel
Chemically activated ion channel
Voltage activated ion channel |
|
|
Term
| Where are passive ion channels found? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where are chemically activated ion channels found? |
|
Definition
| Mainly soma and dendrites |
|
|
Term
| Chemically activated ion channels are also called what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens in chemically activated ion channels? |
|
Definition
| Neurotransmitters bind to sites and open gates to start flow |
|
|
Term
| Where are voltage activated ion channels found? |
|
Definition
| On axon and soma membranes |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of voltage activated ion channels? |
|
Definition
| Open when detect certain voltage; responsible for generating/propagating action potential |
|
|
Term
| What causes the ion movement and membrane potential? |
|
Definition
| Difference in electrical charge or ion concentration between one side and other side of membrane (concentration gradient) |
|
|
Term
| What does the negative in front of the numbers of membrane potential voltage mean? |
|
Definition
| The inside is more negative than the outside |
|
|
Term
| What does membrane potential cause? |
|
Definition
| Move of ions or electrons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ionic current, I (units: amps) |
|
|
Term
| Term: Overall effect of all ion channels for given ion |
|
Definition
| Membrane conductance of ion |
|
|
Term
| At rest, describe the concentrations inside and outside neurons |
|
Definition
Inside: Relatively high potassium concentration, low sodium concentration
Outside: Relatively low potassium concentration, high sodium concentration |
|
|
Term
| What are the functions of the potassium and sodium concentration gradients? |
|
Definition
K+: Causes potassium to diffuse out of neuron through potassium channels
Na+: Causes Na+ to diffuse into neuron through sodium channels |
|
|
Term
| How is the gradient to retain sodium and potassium levels maintained? |
|
Definition
| Sodium-Potassium ATPase pump |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the Na-K ATPase pump? |
|
Definition
| Moves Na+ out, K+ in (against gradient) |
|
|
Term
| If the concentration of potassium = the concentration of large proteins and amino acids, initially before diffusion, what is the net charge? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens when the potassium begins to diffuse out? |
|
Definition
| The inside becomes more negative than outside |
|
|
Term
| What happens when the number of charged ions differs in vs. out? |
|
Definition
| Electrical potential forms and ions attracted to region with opposite charge in attracts potassium back into cell |
|
|
Term
| What happens as more potassium ions leave the cell? |
|
Definition
| Greater electrical force develops until electrical force draws potassium into cell at the same rate that it leaves the cell due to the concentration gradient |
|
|
Term
| For a cell with only K+ and A-, the membrane potential equals what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What other ions, aside from K+, affect membrane potential? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Change in voltage of membrane potential from - to + briefly |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the voltage of membrane potential at its resting period? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens as the membrane potential becomes more positive? |
|
Definition
| Depolarization occurs, reaches threshold (-45 mV), and the rising phase occurs and reaches the peak at +30 mV, then repolarizes and becomes more negative |
|
|
Term
| Term: More negative than resting potential |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the voltage changes in action potential caused by? |
|
Definition
| Open and closing voltage sensitive ion channels that control sodium in and potassium out |
|
|
Term
| What happens when the voltage of a voltage-activated ion channel reaches threshold? |
|
Definition
| Ion channel gates open, and ions flow |
|
|
Term
| What are the three states of sodium channel operation? |
|
Definition
Resting state
Activating state
Inactivating state |
|
|
Term
| Sodium channels activate and inactivate due to...? |
|
Definition
| 2 separate gates opening and closing independently |
|
|
Term
| What do the properties of sodium channels depend on? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What else does the voltage threshold do? |
|
Definition
| Opens voltage-sensitive potassium channels, and there is no inactive gate in potassium channels |
|
|
Term
| Describe potassium channels |
|
Definition
| They open slower than sodium channels and remain open until they sense a certain voltage |
|
|
Term
| True/False: Closing potassium gates are time and voltage-dependent |
|
Definition
| False, they are only voltage-dependent |
|
|
Term
| What happens to potassium channels when the membrane is depolarized? |
|
Definition
| Potassium channels remain in an open state and only close once the membrane is repolarized |
|
|
Term
| What happens when many sodium channels in the axon membrane are activated? |
|
Definition
| An influx of sodium ions is caused which causes membrane potential to increase and produces a gradual depolarization of membrane up to threshold (-45 mV); the more channels activated, the more sodium influx, which depolarizes the membrane still more |
|
|
Term
| What is the process of the influx of sodium ions causing the membrane to become more and more depolarized? |
|
Definition
| The basis of rapid rising phase once threshold is reached |
|
|
Term
| What happens at the peak of depolarization? |
|
Definition
| The membrane is much more permeable to sodium than potassium, but after the peak inactive channels start to close and sodium influx is blocked and membrane potential begins to repolarize and K+>Na+ |
|
|
Term
| What happens when there is a potassium efflux? |
|
Definition
| A repolarization occurs and then a removal of + charges causes hyperpolarization and finally a resting state when potassium channels close |
|
|
Term
| Term: Time period just after start of action potential, axon cannot start a second action potential regardless of how much membrane is depolarized |
|
Definition
| Absolute refractory period |
|
|
Term
| How long does the absolute refractory period last? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What causes the absolute refractory period? |
|
Definition
| Sodium inactivate gates closed and are not reset |
|
|
Term
| Term: After the absolute refractory period, the axon can start a second action potential, but only if depolarization is greater than normal (higher threshold) |
|
Definition
| Relative refractory period |
|
|
Term
| Term: Time interval limiting fastest frequent axon can generate action potentials |
|
Definition
| Absolute Refractory Period |
|
|
Term
| Describe the movement of an action potential |
|
Definition
| Once the AP begins, it propagates (moves) down. The 1st membrane region begins the action potential and a sodium influx occurs. The removal of sodium from adjacent regions causes them to depolarize and begin an action potential in the second region |
|
|
Term
| True/False: Action potentials travel at constant speeds |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is velocity proportional to in unmyelinated neurons? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is velocity proportional to in myelinated neurons? |
|
Definition
Diameter of axon
Distance between nodes of Ranvier |
|
|
Term
| Term: Jumping motion of AP from one node to the next |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True/False: The bigger the stimulus, the larger an AP gets |
|
Definition
| False. APs are all the same size regardless of stimulus size |
|
|
Term
| Term: First three stimuluses |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Describe the 4th-7th stimuluses |
|
Definition
| These continue stronger, but APs are same size because they occur maximally or not at all |
|
|
Term
| What happens to a small stimulus if it doesn't reach threshold? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True/False: Electrical synapses transmit information in both directions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True/False: Chemical synapses flow both directions |
|
Definition
| False, only flows one way towards synaptic cleft |
|
|
Term
| Which is faster, a chemical or electrical synapse? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Synapse if membrane is closer to threshold |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Synapse if membrane is farther from threshold |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Many synapses affecting 1 postsynaptic neuron so info from many cells can affect that neuron's activity |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: 1 Presynaptic neuron sharing information with many postsynaptic neurons |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the synaptic cleft's function? |
|
Definition
| Prevents direct flow of ions through chemical synapses |
|
|
Term
| Term: Synapse used for communication between distant cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Neuron where the chemical signal is produced |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Neuron which acts as the target cell and receives the chemical signal |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens to neurotransmitters? |
|
Definition
| Once they are released, they diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors in the postsynaptic neuron |
|
|
Term
| How are neurotransmitters released? |
|
Definition
| Synaptic vesicles containing the neurotransmitters fuse to the presynaptic membrane to release |
|
|
Term
| What are the three types of chemical synapses? |
|
Definition
Axodendritic synapse
Axoaxonic synapse
Axosomatic synapse |
|
|
Term
| What are the four phases of synaptic transmission? |
|
Definition
Synthesis of neurotransmitter
Storage and release
Interaction between transmitter and postsynaptic receptor
Termination of synaptic transmission |
|
|
Term
| What occurs during the synthesis of neurotransmitters? |
|
Definition
| Each type is packaged and stored in vesicles near the cleft |
|
|
Term
| What occurs during the storage and release of neurotransmitters? |
|
Definition
| These are released when an action potential activates the voltage-sensitive calcium channels where there is an influx of calcium ions |
|
|
Term
| What causes the neurotransmitters to be released from synaptic vesicles? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does the number of vesicles fusing in synaptic termination depend on? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Number of ions flowing through channel at a time |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Sum of all single channel currents through membrane |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Flow of synaptic current resulting from release of neurotransmitter from 1 vesicle causing a change in membrane permeability |
|
Definition
| Unitary Postsynaptic Potential |
|
|
Term
| Term: Action potentials formed from excited neurons acted upon by unitary postsynaptic potentials that act together to depolarize the membrane |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Postsynaptic potentials that tend to prevent (inhibit) neurons from starting APs |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The synaptic activation of the receptor opening potassium channels only causing potassium efflux, so the inside loses + and becomes more -, casing the membrane potential to become hyperpolarized, causing an IPSP to develop |
|
|
Term
| Term: Stimulus occurring before the 1st EPSP dies away, and the two are added together |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Two inputs at different locations, which are along too small but add together to activate threshold |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
During the following phases, tell how much each sodium gate is open
Resting phase
Slow-rising phase
Rapid-rising phase
Repolarization
Hyperpolarization |
|
Definition
Resting: 0%
Slow-rising: 50%
Rapid-rising: 100%
Repolarization: 50%
Hyperpolarization: 0% |
|
|
Term
During the following phases, tell how much each potassium gate is open
Resting phase
Slow-rising phase
Rapid-rising phase
Repolarization
Hyperpolarization |
|
Definition
Resting: 0%
Slow-rising: 0%
Rapid-rising: 50%
Repolarization: 100%
Hyperpolarization: 50% |
|
|
Term
| What are the two ways that termination of a synaptic transmitter can occur? |
|
Definition
Transmitter is pumped back into presynaptic terminals by re-uptake mechanism
OR
Transmitter is removed by degrading enzymes and products are carried to the presynaptic terminal |
|
|
Term
| Term: After transmitter is back in the presynaptic terminal, it is packaged again and moved into vesicles for storage |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Synapses which release a transmitter from restricted areas of presynaptic terminal (active zones) |
|
Definition
| Discrete chemical synapses |
|
|
Term
| Give an example of a discrete chemical synapse |
|
Definition
| Junction between neuron and muscle cells |
|
|
Term
| Term: Synapses which their release is not limited to active zones; they form a "chain of beads," and exist as an extension of the axon, activating a large surface area of 1 or many cells |
|
Definition
| Diffuse chemical synapses |
|
|
Term
| Give an example of a diffuse chemical synapse |
|
Definition
| Terminals of sympathetic neurons |
|
|
Term
| What are the two groups neurotransmitters are classified into? |
|
Definition
Low molecular weight transmitters
Neuropeptides |
|
|
Term
| Where are Low-molecular-weight transmitters synthesized? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where are neuropeptides synthesized? |
|
Definition
| In the soma, and moved to presynaptic terminals |
|
|
Term
| Name the six low-molecular-weight neurotransmitters |
|
Definition
Acetylcholine
Dopamine
Nonepinephrine
Serotonin
Glutamate
GABA |
|
|
Term
| Term: Chemical transmitter between nerves and muscle |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Acetyl CoA + Choline with the enzyme Acetylcholinesterase |
|
|
Term
| What are the two types of postsynaptic receptors that ACh binds with? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Receptor sensitive to nicotine |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Receptor sensitive to the drug muscarine |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens once ACh uncouples from its receptor? |
|
Definition
| Ion channels close and sodium and potassium can no longer pass through |
|
|
Term
| What happens when ACh binds with AChE in the gap? |
|
Definition
| ACh is degraded to Choline and Acetate |
|
|
Term
| What happens when ACh is broken down into Choline and Acetate? |
|
Definition
| Choline is then taken up into the presynaptic terminal and recycled to produce ACh |
|
|
Term
| Give some examples of biogenic amines (including catecholamines) |
|
Definition
Dopamine
Epinephrine
Nonepinephrine |
|
|
Term
| Describe the synthesis of Epinephrine, which begins the same as Dopamine synthesis |
|
Definition
| Tyrosine -> L-Dopa -> Dopamine -> NE -> Epinephrine |
|
|
Term
| What happens after dopamine uncouples from its receptor? |
|
Definition
| 80% is taken up into the presynaptic terminal for recycling, the other 20% is degraded by COMT |
|
|
Term
| What two drugs greatly affect dopamine? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How does cocaine affect dopamine? |
|
Definition
| Inhibits re-uptake of dopamine into terminal |
|
|
Term
| How does amphetamine affect dopamine? |
|
Definition
| Increases the release of dopamine into cleft |
|
|
Term
| Term: Neurotransmitter that increases cheerfulness and sexual desire, especially if neurons are located in the septal area of the limbic system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Pleasure center of brain |
|
Definition
| Septal area of the limbic system |
|
|
Term
| What causes Parkinson's disease? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the symptoms of Parkinson's disease? |
|
Definition
Tremors of arms and legs
Difficult stop/start walking
Shuffling
Muffled speech
Expressionless |
|
|
Term
| What happened to some Parkinson's patients when given dopamine? |
|
Definition
| Some went from wheelchair to skiing and golfing! |
|
|
Term
| Term: 2nd catecholamine at the junction of neuron and small muscles in ANS, synthesized from dopamine |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens to nonepinephrine when it uncouples from its receptor? |
|
Definition
80% re-uptake
20% degraded by COMT |
|
|
Term
| Serotonin is also known as...? |
|
Definition
| 5-Hydroxtryptamine (5-HT) |
|
|
Term
| True/False: Serotonin is not a catechol |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Biogenic amine found throughout brain and is synthesized in the brain stem |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True/False: Dopamine-releasing neurons innervate nearly all structures in brain and spinal cord |
|
Definition
| False. Saratonin-releasing neurons do this |
|
|
Term
| What effect does serotonin have on paths controlling muscles and control sensations? |
|
Definition
Excitatory effect on muscle paths
Inhibitory effect on control sensation paths |
|
|
Term
| When is serotonin activity lowest and highest? |
|
Definition
Lowest: During sleep
Highest: States of alertful wakefulness |
|
|
Term
| What do serotonin paths regulate? |
|
Definition
Food intake
Reproductive behavior
Emotional states of mood and anxiety |
|
|
Term
| What happens once serotonin uncouples from its receptor? |
|
Definition
80% goes through re-uptake
20% degraded by MAO enzyme |
|
|
Term
| Which neurotransmitters are amino acids? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Very potent excitatory transmitter (amino acid) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does GABA stand for? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Potent inhibitory transmitter made from glutamate |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What occurs when GABA binds to its receptor? |
|
Definition
| An influx of chlorine atoms into neuron occurs and membrane permeability is hyperpolarized, inhibits 2nd neuron |
|
|
Term
| Term: Products of soma; transmitters made of chains of amino acids |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How is the processing of neuropeptides different from low-molecular-weight transmitters? |
|
Definition
Made in soma, not presynaptic terminal
Made when large proteins called polypeptides are broken down |
|
|
Term
| True/False: Certain neuropeptides are endogenous opinoids that have receptors at the sites of action of opiates morphine and codine |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: These relieve pain without a loss of consciousness; opiates are an example |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are some functions of opiates? |
|
Definition
Jogger's high
Eating/drinking behavior
Regulation of cardiovascular system
Regulation of mood and emotion |
|
|
Term
| True/False: Like low-molecular-weight transmitters, neuropeptides participate in re-uptake as well |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the two main divisions of the nervous system? |
|
Definition
Central Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System |
|
|
Term
| What are the right and left cerebral hemispheres connected by? |
|
Definition
| Massive bundles of fibers called the corpus callosum |
|
|
Term
| Term: Tiny, master command center for neural and endocrine coordination |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the limbic system? |
|
Definition
Associated with learning
Coordinated with hypothalamus to control behavior and endocrine responses |
|
|
Term
| What are the two divisions of the peripheral nervous system? |
|
Definition
Afferent - Sensory
Efferent - Motor |
|
|
Term
| What are the two divisions of the motor nervous system? |
|
Definition
Somatic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system |
|
|
Term
| What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system? |
|
Definition
Sympathetic division
Parasympathetic division |
|
|
Term
| Describe the Sympathetic division |
|
Definition
Fight or flight;
Short preganglion neuron,
Long postganglion neuron;
Leaves CNS at Thoracic and Lumbar levels |
|
|
Term
| What are some effects of the sympathetic division? |
|
Definition
Speed heart
Dilates pupil
Inhibits digestion |
|
|
Term
| Describe the parasympathetic division |
|
Definition
Long preganglion neuron,
Short postganglion neuron;
Leaves CNS at brain and sacrum (Craniosacral) |
|
|
Term
| What are some effects of the parasympathetic division? |
|
Definition
Digestion/content
Slows heart
Constricts pupil |
|
|
Term
| The somatic, parasympathetic, and the sympathetic (preganglion) all use ACh, but the sympathetic postganglion uses ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Brain tissue depends on a constant supply of ____ and ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the function of CSF and where is it formed? |
|
Definition
Formed in the ventricles;
Bathes brain ventricles and space within meninges |
|
|
Term
| Term: Neural paths in sensory systems; bundles of three neuron chains |
|
Definition
| Sensory pathway or Ascending paths |
|
|
Term
| Term: One afferent neuron with all receptor endings |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Body area that when stimulated, starts APs in certain afferent neurons |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Ascending paths in spinal cord that carry only one type of sensory information |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where do somatic receptors (in the skin, skeletal muscle, and tendons) send information to? |
|
Definition
| Somatosensory cortex in parietal lobe |
|
|
Term
| Where do the eyes send information to? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where do the ear paths send information to? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Ascending paths activated by different types of stimulus that give general information |
|
Definition
| Nonspecific ascending paths |
|
|
Term
| Where do the cortical association areas lie? |
|
Definition
| Adjacent to, as well as outside of the primary cortical sensory (or motor) areas |
|
|
Term
| What is the role of the associated cortical areas? |
|
Definition
| Complex analysis of incoming information with more complicated processing farther out from primary sensory areas |
|
|
Term
| What are the four aspects of stimulus that sensory systems code for? |
|
Definition
Type
Intensity
Location
Duration |
|
|
Term
| Term: General sense that a sense receptor codes for |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: Specific area of a sense that a receptor codes for |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the intensity of a stimulus coded by? |
|
Definition
| Rate of firing of individual sensory units and by number of sensory units activated |
|
|
Term
| What does the perception of a stimulus location depend on? |
|
Definition
| Size of receptive field covered by one sensory unit and on overlap of nearby receptive fields |
|
|
Term
| Term: Means by which ascending paths emphasize wanted information and increase sensory activity; more important in localization of stimulus than size of receptive field |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are some of the senses that somatic receptors sense? |
|
Definition
Touch
Pressure
Temperature
Pain
Awareness of body positions |
|
|
Term
| Term: Receptors that code for limb position |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Describe the anterolateral column path |
|
Definition
| From pain/temperature receptor -> spinal cord -> thalamus -> Somato sensory cortex |
|
|
Term
| Describe the dorsal column path |
|
Definition
| From vibration/joint position receptor -> brain stem -> thalamus -> Somato sensory cortex |
|
|
Term
| How is the somato sensory cortex organized? |
|
Definition
Topographically;
Ends of somatic paths are grouped by location of receptors of path origin |
|
|
Term
| What are the two types of receptors for temperature? |
|
Definition
Warmth receptors
Nociceptors |
|
|
Term
| What do warmth receptors respond to? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What do nociceptors respond to? |
|
Definition
| Temperatures greater than 43 degrees celsius and pain (cuts and chemicals as well as tissue damage) |
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Term
| Term: Cause by activation of interneurons by incoming nociceptor neurons; pain sensation experienced at site other than injured site |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What is the function of the optical part and the neural part of the eye? |
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Definition
Optical - focuses image on receptor
neural - transforms visual part into APs |
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Term
| What is the lens shape changed by? |
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Definition
| Ciliary muscles -> suspensory ligaments |
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Term
| The lens focuses an image ideally onto the...? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| The lens and cornea bend light by...? |
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Definition
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Term
| Term: Adjustments for near/far vision |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What type of lens is needed for near-sightedness? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What type of lens is needed for far-sightedness? |
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Definition
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Term
| Term: Opacity of lens, common with age |
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Definition
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Term
| Term: Lens/cornea lacks smoothly spherical surface |
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Definition
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Term
| Term: Unable to focus distant objects; near-sightedness |
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Definition
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Term
| Term: Unable to focus near objects; far-sightedness |
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Definition
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Term
| Term: Photoreceptor cell used for color and high definition vision |
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Definition
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Term
| Term: Photoreceptor cell used for black and white vision |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What are cones and rods made of? |
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Definition
| Opsin (protein) and retinal |
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Term
| What are the four types of photoreceptors? |
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Definition
3 different types of cones
Rods |
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Term
| Why are rods and the three types of cones sensitive to different wavelengths? |
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Definition
| They are each made of different opsins |
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Term
| What happens to the rods and cones in your eyes in the dark? |
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Definition
| They are depolarized so there is an increase in neurotransmitter release |
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Term
| What happens when light reaches the retina? |
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Definition
| There is a shape change and series of events leading to hyperpolarization of rods and cones and a decrease in the release of neurotransmitters from them |
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Term
| Where do rods and cones synapse? |
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Definition
| On bipolar cells, which in turn synapse on ganglion cells |
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Term
| Describe the path from the optic neurons |
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Definition
| Optic neurons cross over to form the optic chiasma -> Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) in thalamus which sends neuron fibers to visual cortex and suprachiasmatic nucleus of hypothalamus clock |
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Term
| What are the 3 cone sensitivities? |
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Definition
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Term
| How many skeletal muscles move the eye, and what are the muscles' functions? |
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Definition
6;
Keep fixation point focused on fovea and move eyes during accomodation |
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Term
| What are the three small bones located in the ear? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| Sound wave frequency determines __ |
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Definition
|
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Term
| Sound wave amplitude determines __ |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What happens in the ear that causes AP to be generated? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What happens when sound waves move the oval window? |
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Definition
| Pressure waves are set up in the fluid-filled scala vestibli, which causes vibrations in cochlear duct fluid which then vibrates the stereocilia within the organ of Corti |
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Term
| What structure in the ear releases neurotransmitters? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What happens as the frequency of sound is lowered? |
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Definition
| Vibrations go farther out membrane |
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Term
| What happens when the stereocilia on hair cells bend? |
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Definition
| Ion channels in cell membrane of hair cell open, causing a depolarization of membrane and creates receptor potential. The depolarization causes a release of the neurotransmitter glutamate |
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Term
| Where is the vestibular system located? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What does the vestibular system consist of? |
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Definition
3 semicircular canals
Utricle
Saccule |
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Term
| What is the function of semicircular ducts? |
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Definition
| Detect angular acceleration during head rotation which bends hair cells |
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Term
| Term: Stones within hair cells that respond to change in position |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What is the function of otoliths? |
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Definition
| Pull against hair cells and bend cilia causing a depolarization and then a hyperpolarization |
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Term
| Term: Illusion of movement causing nausea |
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Definition
|
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Term
| Term: Receptors for specific chemicals |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
| How many receptor cells does a single taste bud have? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What are the five basic groups of taste buds? |
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Definition
Umami
Sweet
Sour
Salty
Bitter |
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Term
| Describe the path that taste sensory information takes |
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Definition
| Brain stem (Medulla oblongata) -> Gustatory nucleus -> thalamus -> gustatory area of neocortex |
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Term
| Term: Result of activation of olfactory receptor cells in nasal sinuses |
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Definition
|
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Term
| The olfactory area stimulates ___ and plays a role in __ ___ |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Skeletal muscle is attached to bones by ___ |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are muscle fibers made of? |
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Definition
| Sarcomeres, thick and thin filaments and crossbridges |
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Term
| Term: Striated, involuntary muscle with interculated disks |
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Definition
|
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Term
| Term: Area in muscle without intercellular space that allows tissue of many cells to function as if it were one large cell |
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Definition
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Term
| Term: Unstriated (without obvious sarcomeres), involuntary muscle |
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Definition
|
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Term
| Term: Any form of muscle activity with respect to stimulus, whether muscle shortens or not |
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Definition
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Term
| Term: Contraction where muscle does not do any shortening, but develops force or tension while pulling against some immovable object |
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Definition
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Term
| Term: Contraction where force in muscle remains constant as muscle shortens |
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Definition
|
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Term
| Term: Contraction in which force continually increases as muscle shortens |
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Definition
|
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Term
| Term: One stimulus to skeletal muscle sets off a series of electrical and chemical events |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What is the mechanical factor with the most effect on isometric contraction |
|
Definition
| Length at which muscle is held |
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|
Term
| What is the optimal length? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Stretching a muscle descreases the amount of ___ |
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Definition
|
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Term
| Describe the use of calcium in muscle contraction |
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Definition
| An AP causes calcium to be released from the Sarcoplasmic reticulum, calcium binds to troponin, tropomyosin shifts and crossbridges form, the heads rotate and the muscle shortens |
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Term
| What happens if calcium is removed from muscle contraction? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens if ATP is removed from muscle contraction? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Where is calcium used for muscle contraction stored? |
|
Definition
| Terminal cisternae in the sarcoplasmic reticulum |
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Term
| Describe the flow of calcium for muscle contraction |
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Definition
| Terminal cisternae in sarcoplasmic reticulum -> thick/thin filaments -> uptake into longitudinal elements of sarcoplasmic reticulum -> terminal cisternae |
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Term
| Term: Lag period before muscle lifts |
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Definition
|
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Term
| Term: When stimulus reaches the muscle with load, it produces isometric first as muscle struggles to lift load but there is no muscle shortening |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| A muscle is known as entirely isotonic only if...? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| A muscle is known as entirely isometric only if...? |
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Definition
| Afterload is more than what muscles can lift |
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Term
The lighter the load...?
The heavier the load...? |
|
Definition
Sooner it can be lifted;
Less the muscle can shorten |
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Term
| Term: Rate of doing work; force x velocity |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What happens at the max force muscle can attain? |
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Definition
| Power output = 0 because isometric muscle doesn't shorten |
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Term
| What happens to the power output when there is no load? |
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Definition
| Muscle shortening is most rapid but no force is exerted so power output = 0 |
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Term
| When is the power output at its max? |
|
Definition
| When force is set at 30% of max load |
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Term
| Term: Tubules in muscles that function in diffusion |
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Definition
| Transverse tubular system |
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Term
| Term: Skeletal/Cardiac muscle responds to 1 stimulus with single AP |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What limits the force of a muscle twitch? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Can muscles be restimulated before relaxation is complete? |
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Definition
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Term
| Term: Sustained contraction with much more force than a twitch; repeated stimulus that keeps muscles from relaxing completely if constant supply of calcium |
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Definition
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Term
| Term: Stimulus spaced relatively far apart, with force rising and falling between stimuli |
|
Definition
| Partial (unfused) tetanus |
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Term
| Term: Close stimuli that keeps force steady |
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Definition
|
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Term
| Term: Lowest frequency to produce fused tetanus |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the tetonic fusion frequency for skeletal muscle? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the most useful contractions? |
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Definition
| A mix of twitches and partly fused tetanic contractions |
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Term
| According to muscle contractions, how is cardiac muscle different from skeletal muscle? |
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Definition
| Cardiac muscle is a twitch-only type of muscle |
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Term
| How do drugs affect muscle contraction of cardiac muscle? |
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Definition
Increase overall supply of calcium, in which more is released with each beat
Calcium blockers can reduce strength of contractions |
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|
Term
| How does epinephrine affect cardiac muscle contraction? |
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Definition
| Increases strength of contraction by accumulating amount of internal calcium, making contractions more times per minute and stronger |
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|
Term
| What two factors determine tension produced by whole muscle contraction? |
|
Definition
Force developed by each fiber
Number of active fibers in each muscle |
|
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Term
| Describe muscles that produce delicate movements |
|
Definition
| Small number of fibers per unit |
|
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Term
| Describe muscles that are large and produce less delicate movements |
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Definition
| Large number of fibers per unit |
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Term
| Strength and susceptibility to fatigue of a muscle can be reduced by ___ |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| How does long-duration, low-intensity (aerobic) exercise decrease susceptibility to fatigue? |
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Definition
| Increases fibers and capacity for ATP production by increasing number of mitochondria and blood vessels in muscle; resulting in greater endurance |
|
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Term
| How does short-duration, high-intensity (anaerobic) exercise increase muscle strength? |
|
Definition
| Increases fiber diameter due to increased synthesis of actin/myosin, resulting in increased strength, but fatigue quickly |
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Term
| Term: Decline in muscle force as a result of previous contractions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the three factors that determine the onset of fatigue |
|
Definition
Type of fiber
Intensity and duration of contractions
Level of fitness |
|
|
Term
| What are the two ways muscles can be fatigued? |
|
Definition
Conduction failure
Lactic acid build-up |
|
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Term
| Term: Muscle AP fails to be conducted in T-tubules, stops calcium release from terminal cisternae |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: High proton concentration alters calcium release and function of calcium-ATPase pumps of S.R. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True/False: One important type of fatigue is called Central Command Fatigue and has to do with the "will to win" |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True/False: The central nervous system and peripheral nervous system can act independently |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Sensory neurons form __ __ by connecting with intrafusal muscle fibers deep inside the muscle |
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Definition
|
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Term
| Term: Length detectors; act as strength receptors; increase rate of APs when intrafusal fibers stretch |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Term: 2nd type of muscle receptor; connected to tendons and send out info about force produced by contraction; tension receptors |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| As greater force develops during contraction, Golgi Tendon Organs generate ___ APs |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What information do muscle spindles and GTOs send to the spinal cord, which in turn sends this information to the somatic sensory cortex or within the spinal cord for reflex action |
|
Definition
| Information about muscle force, velocity and length |
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