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Physiology II Quiz 2
Sensory Physiology
497
Physiology
Professional
09/08/2010

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Term
The nervous system
Definition
The body's control system that governs actions a/o reactions
Term
What are the 3 basic functions of the NS/steps in its activation?
Definition
Detection/Transmission, Processing/Decision-making, Transmission
Term
What type of neurons transmit information to the CNS?
Definition
Afferent/Sensory neurons
Term
Where does processing of information & decision making occur?
Definition
Interneurons/Association neurons
Term
What neurons transmit response decision to effectors?
Definition
Efferent/Motor neurons
Term
What do sensory cells convert stimuli into?
Definition
Electrical signals
Term
What is the basic functional organization of the NS?
Definition
Environment --> Sensory Components --> Brain & Spinal Cord --> Motor Components --> Effectors
Term
Where does analysis & integration of sensory & motor information occur?
Definition
Brain & Spinal Cord
Term
What are somatic effectors?
Definition
Skeletal mm.
Term
What are autonomic effectors?
Definition
Smooth mm., Cardiac mm., Glands
Term
Communication btw nn., along nn., & btw nn. & target cells involves _____.
Definition
Flow of ions/electrical currents
Term
Sensation
Definition
Conscious or unconscious awareness of external & internal stimuli perceived via sensory Rs
Term
How many total modalities are there for sensation?
Definition
9
Term
What are the general modalities of sensation?
Definition
Touch, Pain, Temperature, Proprioception
Term
What are the special modalities of sensation?
Definition
Vision, Hearing, Equilibrium, Taste, Smell
Term
Nature/Type of Sensation vary according to _____.
Definition
CNS Destination
Term
Unconscious or conscious sensation? Spinal Cord
Definition
Unconscious
Term
Unconscious or conscious sensation? Brain Stem.
Definition
Unconscious
Term
Unconscious or conscious sensation? Thalamus
Definition
Crude awareness of location & type of sensation
Term
Unconscious or conscious sensation? Cerebral Cortex
Definition
Conscious Perception
Term
How many modalities are carried by any given neuron?
Definition
Only one
Term
What type of sensation is destined for the spinal cord?
Definition
Fast automatic response; Spinal reflexes
Term
What type of sensation is destined for the brain stem?
Definition
Complex automatic reflexes; HR, BP, Breathing Rate
Term
What type of sensation is destined for the thalamus?
Definition
Pain, Touch, Hearing
Term
What specific sensation is destined for the cerebral cortex?
Definition
Vision
Term
Which part of the CNS performs precise interpretation of sensory type & location?
Definition
Cerebral Cortex
Term
What does sensation begin with?
Definition
Sensory Receptor
Term
What are the 2 types of sensory receptors?
Definition
1)Dendritic zone of Sensory neuron
2)Specialized cells
Term
What are the 2 types of "dendritic zone" sensory R's?
Definition
Free n. endings & Encapsulated n. endings
Term
What sensations are picked up by free nerve endings?
Definition
Pain, Thermal, Touch, Smell
Term
What types of sensations are picked up by encapsulated nerve endings?
Definition
Touch, Proprioception
Term
What type of sensations are picked up by specialized sensory cells?
Definition
Vision, Hearing, Taste, Equilibrium
Term
What 3 forms of energy provide sensory stimulation?
Definition
Electromagnetic, Mechanical, Chemical
Term
What are the functional classifications of sensory R's?
Definition
MechanoR's, ThermoR's, PhotoR's, ChemoR's, NociR's
Term
What type of stimulus is picked up by mechanoreceptors? Give examples.
Definition
Sound/pressure waves; touch, hearing, proprioception
Term
What type of stimulus is picked up by thermoreceptors? Give examples.
Definition
Kinetic energy; Thermoreception/Temperature
Term
What type of stimulus is picked up by photoreceptors? Give examples.
Definition
Electromagnetic energy; Vision/Light
Term
What type of stimulus is picked up by chemoreceptors? Give examples.
Definition
Chemical energy; Taste, Smell
Term
What type of stimulus is picked up by nociceptors? Give examples.
Definition
Chemical Energy; Pain
Term
Give an example of an encapsulated n. ending.
Definition
Paccinian Corpuscle
Term
Mechanoreceptors normally have ____ channels, which _____ when the cell is stretched.
Definition
Closed; Open
Term
Stimulating energy is transformed into _____.
Definition
Electrical energy
Term
Outline the steps in the process of sensation.
Definition
Stimulation, Transduction, Impulse Generation, Propagation & Integration
Term
Stimulation leads to changes in _____.
Definition
Ionic Channels, Ionic Flow, or Membrane Permeability
Term
Stimulating energy is transformed into electrical energy, causing a _____.
Definition
Receptor Potential
Term
In free & encapsulated n. endings, how does impulse generation occur?
Definition
When a R potential reaches threshold level, it triggers APs in the first-order neuron
Term
In sensory cells, how does impulse generation occur?
Definition
When R potential reaches threshold level, it triggers release of NT's, which trigger EPSPs or IPSPs in the first-order neuron
Term
EPSP
Definition
Excitatory Post-synaptic Potential
Term
IPSP
Definition
Inhibitory Post-synaptic Potential
Term
What is the term for different modalities being sensed despite all input being nerve impulses?
Definition
Labeled Line Principle
Term
The Labeled Line Principle falls under the _____ step of sensation processing.
Definition
Propagation & Integration
Term
The intensity of a stimulus is transmitted by increasing the ____.
Definition
AP Frequency
Term
An organism has to primarily reacts to ____ in the environment.
Definition
Changes
Term
Many R's react only to ______ in stimulus strength, then adapt to it.
Definition
Initial Change
Term
Rapid adaptation = _____ R's
Definition
Phasic
Term
Slow Adaptation = _____ R's
Definition
Tonic
Term
_____ hardly adapt at all.
Definition
Pain R's
Term
In rapid adaptation, sensory R's adapt w/i _____
Definition
Seconds or Milliseconds
Term
Rapid adaptation is geared toward ______.
Definition
Registering quick changes in stimulus strength
Term
What are some examples of rapid adaptation?
Definition
Touch, Smell, Thermoreception; [hair receptor, paccinian corpuscle]
Term
What is the function of slow adaptation?
Definition
Keep CNS appraised of status of the body
Term
What are some examples of slow adaptation?
Definition
Proprioception, Baroreceptors, Chemical composition of blood; [Tendon organ, Muscle spindle]
Term
Stimulus detection is the task of the ____.
Definition
Sensory system
Term
Sensory System
Definition
Component of the control system that receives stimuli & informs the CNS for decision making/rxn
Term
Basic tool of neurological examinations:
Definition
Stimulus --> Rxn
Term
Biceps rxn:
Definition
Stretching of m. spindles --> Contraction of mm.
Term
If ____ part of the control system is malfunctional, a stimulus may not lead to the expected ____.
Definition
Any; Rxn
Term
Give 3 examples of tactile sensations.
Definition
Touch, Pressure, Vibration
Term
What is the significance of the sense of touch?
Definition
Orientation in space, Body movements, Social implications
Term
What are the R's for sense of touch & where are they located?
Definition
Free & Encapsulated n. endings; Mechanoreceptors located in the skin & subcutis
Term
Give an example of rapidly adapting touch R's.
Definition
Hair root plexus - whiskers
Term
Rapidly adapting touch R's have a very _____ threshold.
Definition
Low
Term
Give an example of slow adapting touch R's.
Definition
Merkel's discs; Ruffinis corpuscles
Term
Slow adapting touch R's register ____.
Definition
Permanent touch
Term
Rapidly adapting touch R's are _____ & register ____.
Definition
highly sensitive; changes
Term
Where are Pacinian corpuscles located?
Definition
Subcutis
Term
Are Pacinian corpuscles rapid or slow adapting?
Definition
Rapid
Term
What are Pacinian corpuscles sensitive to?
Definition
Vibration
Term
What is vibration?
Definition
Alternating Pressure
Term
Where are numerous Pacinian corpuscles found? (What location on what animal(s)?)
Definition
Birds' wing tips & Waterbirds' legs
Term
Each spinal n. innervates a segmental field of skin called a(n) _____.
Definition
Dermatome
Term
Dermatomes of adjacent nn. _____.
Definition
Overlap
Term
What is an exception to dermatomes?
Definition
Plexus nn. contain elements of several spinal nn.
Term
Each plexus n. innervates a specific area called a(n) _____.
Definition
Autonomous Zone
Term
What is used to localize nerve lesions?
Definition
Dermatomal Maps
Term
Peripheral nn. usually have fibers from _______.
Definition
2-3 vertebral elements
Term
Every dermatome is innervated by _____.
Definition
A single spinal nerve
Term
Where does stimulation of a dermatome or autonomous zone travel to?
Definition
Somatosensory Cortex
Term
What results from damage to a segmental or plexus nerve?
Definition
Loss of touch sensation in the relevant dermatome/AZ; No rxn
Term
What results from damage to the ascending tracts or spinal cord?
Definition
Loss of touch sensation Caudal to the lesion
Term
What type of stimulation is used in neurological testing of animals?
Definition
Pain (not touch)
Term
Cutaneous Trunci Reflex
Definition
Twitching of the skin of the thoracolumbar region upon tactile stimulation caused by contraction of the cutaneous trunci m.
Term
What n. innervates the cutaneous trunci m.?
Definition
Lateral Thoracic n.
Term
What spinal cord segment is the lateral thoracic n. from?
Definition
C8 or T1
Term
The lateral thoracic n. is a ____ n.
Definition
Motor
Term
Cutaneous trunci reflex: Tactile R w/i a dermatome  --> impulses enter ____ via ____
Definition
SC; Dorsal root
Term
(Cutaneous Trunci Reflex) Once the impulse enters the D root, it is transmitted ____ to ____.
Definition
Cranially; C8/T1
Term
The cutaneous trunci reflex is absent ____ to the spinal cord lesion.
Definition
Caudal
Term
What does the cutaneous trunci reflex test?
Definition
Integrity of a long spinal cord segment (C8/T1-L4/L5)
Term
Is the cutaneous trunci reflex uni- or bilateral?
Definition
Bilateral
Term
What is proprioception?
Definition
Positions of limbs relative to the body & their rate of movement
Term
Proprioception is essential for ____, ____, & ____ movement.
Definition
Accurate, coordinated, purposeful
Term
Proprioception R's constantly monitor muscle length/tension via _____.
Definition
Muscle spindles
Term
Proprioception R's constantly monitor tendon length/tension via _____.
Definition
Tendon organs
Term
Proprioception R's constantly monitor joint angulation/rotation via _____.
Definition
Joint Receptors
Term
Proprioceptive stimuli ascend via SC to ____ & ____.
Definition
Cerebellum; Cerebral Cortex
Term
What is the site of unconscious proprioception?
Definition
Cerebellum
Term
What is the site of conscious proprioception?
Definition
Cerebral Cortex
Term
Loss of conscious a/o _____ sense of proprioception will lead to _____/_____.
Definition
Unconscious; Uncoordinated movements/Ataxia
Term
Full sense of orientation in space requires ____ & ____
Definition
Proprioception, Equilibrium
Term
Equilibrium
Definition
Special sense; Head position relative to ground
Term
How many groups of specialized muscle fibers are in a muscle spindle?
Definition
3-10
Term
Muscle spindles function for ___.
Definition
Proprioception
Term
Muscle spindles are in a ____ ____ to ordinary m. fibers.
Definition
Capsule parallel
Term
Specialized/Spindle m. fibers = ____
Definition
Intrafusal
Term
Ordinary muscle fibers = ____
Definition
Extrafusal
Term
Which ends of intrafusal fibers contract?
Definition
Polar
Term
What innervates intrafusal fibers? (specific)
Definition
Gamma motor neurons
Term
What acts as the sensory receptor in muscle spindles?
Definition
Midpiece
Term
What is the midpiece of the muscle spindle sensitive to?
Definition
Stretching/Lengthening of the whole muscle
Term
What are the 3 functions of muscle spindles?
Definition
1)Monitor change in m. length
2)Initiate stretch reflexes to protect m. from overstretching
3)Maintain/adjust m. tone
Term
What is the only sensor w/ motor innervation?
Definition
Muscle spindles
Term
When muscles contract, muscle spindles ____.
Definition
Relax
Term
What animal has no patellar reflex?
Definition
Koala
Term
The patellar tap is an example of ____.
Definition
Muscle spindles
Term
What is another name for tendon organ?
Definition
Golgi organ
Term
What is another name for joint receptors?
Definition
Kinesthetic R's
Term
What does a tendon organ consist of?
Definition
Collagen fibers in a capsule
Term
Are tendon organs rapidly or slow adapting?
Definition
Slow
Term
Where are tendon organs situated?
Definition
Junction muscle/tendon in series w/ m. fibers
Term
As mm. contract, tendon organs ____.
Definition
Stretch
Term
What is the function of tendon organs?
Definition
Initiate tendon reflexes to protect tendons & mm. from damage due to extensive tension
Term
What do tendon organs monitor?
Definition
Muscle Tension
Term
Where are joint receptors located?
Definition
w/i & around jt. capsules
Term
What type of nn. are in tendon organs?
Definition
Encapsulated n. endings
Term
What are jt. R's?
Definition
Free n. endings, Ruffini's or Pacinian corpuscles
Term
What do jt R's respond to?
Definition
Changes in pressure & movement
Term
M. spindles, Tendon organs, & jt R's are essential components of ____, ____ & ____.
Definition
Gait, spinal reflexes, postural responses
Term
Deficits in proprioception lead to ____.
Definition
Ataxia
Term
Ataxia
Definition
Lack of coordination
Term
How is proprioceptive sense tested?
Definition
Observing gait & postural responses
Term
Postural Responses
Definition
How an abnormal posture is corrected
Term
Give some examples of postural responses.
Definition
Wheelbarrowing, Hopping, Placing, Proprioceptive Positioning
Term
Damage to what area can cause ataxia?
Definition
Any area (sensors, sensory nn., SC, BS, cerebellum, motor elements, vestibular system)
Term
Thermoreception
Definition
Perception of heat & cold
Term
What is seen in some snakes situated btw the eyes & nostrils?
Definition
Pit Organ
Term
What are the 3 types of thermoreceptors?
Definition
Cold, Warm, Pain
Term
Where are thermoreceptors mainly located?
Definition
Skin surface
Term
What type of receptors are cold receptors?
Definition
free n. endings, A delta sensory fibers
Term
What type of receptors are warm R's?
Definition
probably free n. endings, C fibers
Term
What type of sensation do pain thermoreceptors pick up?
Definition
Burning hot or freezing cold
Term
Each thermoreceptor has a specific _____ that stimulates it.
Definition
Temperature range
Term
Change in temperature --> change in _____ ---> change in _____.
Definition
Metabolism; Membrane permeability
Term
What R's in the temperature control center do not adapt?
Definition
Hypothalamic R's
Term
Initial temperature adaptation is ____, followed by a ____ response.
Definition
Rapid; Steady prolonged
Term
Thermoreception has ____ adaptation.
Definition
Medium range
Term
Getting goosebumps in a jacuzzi is an example of...
Definition
Paradoxical activation of cold R's
Term
The pit organ contains ____ sensitive to ____, but not to ___.
Definition
Thermoreceptors, infrared radiation, visible light
Term
What does the pit organ enable?
Definition
Binocular infrared vision/detection of endothermic prey
Term
The eye is composed like a _____.
Definition
Photographic camera
Term
How many refractive interfaces is the lens system composed of? Name them.
Definition
4; Air/Cornea, Cornea/Aqueous Humor, Aqueous Humor/Lens, Lens/Vitreous Humor
Term
What form of energy is light?
Definition
Electromagnetic
Term
What is the variable aperture of the eye?
Definition
Pupil
Term
What is the film of the eye?
Definition
Retina
Term
What is the function of the retina?
Definition
Transduce energy into electrical impulses
Term
What is focus/accommodation achieved by?
Definition
Changing lens curvature & changing distance btw lens & retina
Term
Which animals achieve focus by changing lens curvature?
Definition
Birds, many reptiles, mammals
Term
What animals achieve focus by changing distance btw lens & retina?
Definition
Most invertebrates
Term
What are the 3 layers of the eyeball?
Definition
Fibrous tunic, Vascular tunic, & Retina
Term
What does the fibrous tunic of the eye consist of?
Definition
Cornea & Sclera
Term
What does the vascular tunic of the eye consist of?
Definition
Choroid, Ciliary Body, & Iris
Term
The retina is the start of the _____ & the site of _____.
Definition
Visual Pathway; Transduction
Term
What are the parts of the retina?
Definition
Pigment epithelium, Tapetum lucidum, Neural epithelium, Blind spot
Term
What does the pigment epithelium of the retina contain?
Definition
Melanin to absorb stray light & prevent light scattering --> sharp images
Term
What is the tapetum lucidum?
Definition
Layer of cells/fibers, present in most mammals & some birds, that reflects light & increases sensitivity
Term
What animals lack a tapetum lucidum?
Definition
Primates, Pigs, Camels
Term
Neural epithelium = ___ neuron chain
Definition
3
Term
What are the 3 vertical information cell types of the neural epithelium of the retina?
Definition
Photoreceptor, Bipolar, & Ganglion
Term
What are the cells that convey lateral information flow in the retina?
Definition
Horizontal cells & Amacrine cells
Term
What is another name for the blind spot?
Definition
Optic Disc
Term
What is the blind spot of the retina? (Specific)
Definition
Where axons of all ganglion cells leave eyeball as the ON; contains no rods/cones/photosensitive R's
Term
Vertebrates have ____ eyes; invertebrates have ____ eyes.
Definition
Inverse;Everse
Term
In vertebrates, light passes _____ first before stimulating ____.
Definition
Neural components; Photoreceptors
Term
How many photoreceptor types are in the retina? Name them.
Definition
2; Cones & Rods
Term
What do photoR cells consist of?
Definition
Outer segment, Inner segment, & synaptic terminal
Term
What is the outer segment of a photoreceptor?
Definition
Photoreceptive part; Absorbs light; Contains Photopigments; Site of Transduction
Term
What is in the inner segment of a photoreceptor? What are its functions?
Definition
Nucleus, Mt; Pumping activity, production of NT
Term
What is in the synaptic terminal of a photoreceptor? What are they in contact with?
Definition
Transmitter vesicles; bipolar cells
Term
Are outer membranes of cones & rods replaced?
Definition
Yes; Frequently
Term
What do photopigments consist of?
Definition
Glycoprotein (opsin) Retinal (vit A)
Term
What is rods' opsin?
Definition
Rhodopsin
Term
What is cones' opsin?
Definition
Photopsin
Term
How many types of photopsins are there?
Definition
3
Term
What happens to photopigments when they absorb light/photons? (General)
Definition
Undergo structural changes
Term
Describe the unstimulated state of photopigments.
Definition
Cis-retinal fits into opsin; pigment is colored
Term
What happens to photopigments when they are stimulated by light?
Definition
Photons absorbed by cis-retinal, isomerization of cis to trans-retinal, separation from opsin, bleaching of photopigment
Term
What converts trans-retinal back to cis-retinal, allowing binding to opsin? What is the term for this process?
Definition
Retinal isomerase; Regeneration
Term
Do cones/photopsins regenerate fast or slowly?
Definition
Fast
Term
Do rods/rhodopsins regenerate fast or slowly?
Definition
Slowly
Term
How long does it take 50% of photopsins/cones to regenerate?
Definition
90s
Term
How long does it take 50% of rhodopsins/rods to regenerate?
Definition
5 min
Term
What conditions are cones adapted to?
Definition
Bright light
Term
How long does it take 100% of photopsins/cones to regenerate?
Definition
2-3 min
Term
How long does it take 100% of rhodopsins/rods to regenerate?
Definition
30-40 min
Term
Structural changes during light absorption/regeneration induce changes in photoR's ______ via opening or closing of ______ = _____
Definition
Membrane potentials; Sodium Channels = Transduction
Term
Describe ion flow in unstimulated photoreceptor cells. (Darkness)
Definition
Na flows into photoR through ligand gated channels (ligand = cGMP)
Term
Describe the state of membrane potential in darkness/unstimulated photoreceptor cells.
Definition
Partial depolarization (-30mV) --> continuous release of glutamate (inhibitory NT) --> IPSPs @ bipolar cells = few or no signlas
Term
Describe what happens in light/during the bleaching process of photopigments.
Definition
Isomerization of cis to trans-retinal activates enzymes --> breakdown of cGMP --> ligand-g Na ch's close --> hyperpolarization (-70mV) of photoR membranes --> decreased release of glutamate --> IPSPs switched off
Term
Usually, glutamate is _____; in photoreceptors, it is _____.
Definition
Excitatory; Inhibitory
Term
Hyper & Depolarization of photoR's are transmitted as _____ via the ______ to _____, which respond w/ _____ if the stimulus is sufficiently strong.
Definition
RPs, Retinal network, Ganglion cells, APs
Term
What portion of photopigments vary slightly? What does this affect?
Definition
Opsin portion; Sensitivity to various wavelengths --> Color differentiation
Term
What are rods stimulated by? (Color)
Definition
Blue-green wavelength (Night)
Term
How many opsins do cones have?
Definition
3
Term
What wavelength range stimulates cones? (What colors?)
Definition
Blue, Green & Red
Term
Cattle are ____-blind, Horses are ____ blind.
Definition
Red; Blue
Term
What do some reptiles & birds have instead of photopigments?
Definition
Colored fat droplets that act like filters
Term
What does hue depend on?
Definition
Ratio of R/B/G opsins
Term
The adverse effects of pain are _____.
Definition
Wide-ranging
Term
Poorly managed pain is a significant contributor to ____ & ____ fatalities.
Definition
Intraoperative, Postoperative
Term
What is pain?
Definition
A subjective emotional experience
Term
Pain sensation & nociception are ____ phenomena.
Definition
Different
Term
What structures are responsible for conscious perception & localization of pain?
Definition
Cortical structures
Term
What specific cortical structure is responsible for localization of pain?
Definition
Primary sensory cortex
Term
What specific cortical structure is responsible for motivational-affective/soreness?
Definition
Secondary sensory cortex
Term
What is the secondary sensory cortex?
Definition
Anterior part of insula & Cingulate gyrus
Term
Give an example of chronic pain.
Definition
Fibromyalgia
Term
Degree of pain is ____-dependent.
Definition
Environmentally
Term
Pain has ____ dimensions:
Definition
3; Sensory-discriminative, motivational-affective, cognitive-evaluative
Term
What is the sensory-discriminative dimension of pain?
Definition
Intensity, Location, Quality, Duration
Term
What is the motivational-affective dimension of pain?
Definition
Unpleasantness & urge to escape unpleasantness
Term
What is the cognitive-evaluative dimension of pain?
Definition
Distraction, Cultural effects, Hypnotic effects
Term
Balance btw ___ & ___ info --> Degree of pain
Definition
Asc, Desc
Term
What are the 3 types of nociceptors?
Definition
C fibers, A-delta fibers, A-beta fibers
Term
Normally, most nociceptors _____.
Definition
Lie dormant
Term
Nociceptors are sensitized by ____ a/o ____.
Definition
Inflammation, Tissue damage
Term
What are the tiny unmyelinated fibers w/ slow conduction & burning pain
Definition
C fibers
Term
What are the thin myelinated fibers w/ more accurate localization?
Definition
A delta
Term
What are the fibers that give info about vibration & position sense, normally proprioceptive/non-nociceptive afferent
Definition
A-beta
Term
What is used in neurological examination to evaluate spinal cord damage?
Definition
Absence of deep pain sensation
Term
Presence or absence of deep pain sensation ____ to the lesion is the most important prognostic indicator
Definition
Caudal
Term
___ pain sensation is less susceptible to compressive lesions.
Definition
Deep
Term
Absence of deep pain sensation for _____ indicates a ___ prognosis associated w/ _____.
Definition
24-48h, grave, severe SC damage
Term
What is the primary excitatory R in nociception?
Definition
Adrenergic
Term
What is the primary inhibitory R in nociception?
Definition
GABA
Term
What are some excitatory NTs in nociception?
Definition
Glutamate, Prostaglandins, Neurokinins
Term
What are some inhibitory NTs in nociception?
Definition
GABA, Glycine, Endogenous opioids, Cannabinoids, Noradrenaline, Serotonin
Term
Gene induction leads to _____ in excitability. This is prevented by ____.
Definition
Permanent changes; Inhibitors
Term
What was the first scientific rationale for the effect of motivation and cognition on pain perception?
Definition
Gate Control
Term
Is gate control accurate from a functional neuroanatomical perspective?
Definition
No
Term
What are the 2 main classifications of pain?
Definition
Physiological/Good Pain; Pathological/Bad Pain
Term
What is the duration of physiological pain?
Definition
Seconds/Minutes
Term
What is the duration of pathological pain?
Definition
Months/Years
Term
What is pathological pain characterized by?
Definition
Hypersensitivity
Term
What are 2 clinical manifestations of pathological pain?
Definition
Allodynia & Hyperalgesia
Term
What are 3 physiological mechanisms of pathological pain?
Definition
Gate control, Peripheral sensitization, & Central sensitization (wind-up)
Term
What is hyperalgesia?
Definition
an exaggerated response to a noxious stimulus
Term
What is allodynia?
Definition
a pain response to a non-noxious stimulus (such as gentle touch)
Term
In both hyperalgesia & allodynia, there is _____ transmission of _____ along _____ neurons.
Definition
Amplified & Persistent, APs, Nociceptive
Term
What are some examples of allodynia?
Definition
Sunburn, post-surgical wounds, tissue injury
Term
What is an example of hyperalgesia?
Definition
Severe bruising
Term
What transforms good pain into bad pain?
Definition
Peripheral sensitization & Central sensitization
Term
Transformation of good pain to bad pain is predominantly induced by ___.
Definition
Inflammatory mediators
Term
Central sensitization is associated w/ ____.
Definition
Long-term potentiation
Term
Pre-emptive analgesia prevents onset of _______ & attenuates ______.
Definition
Central sensitization; Peripheral inflammation
Term
Give some examples of multimodal analgesia.
Definition
Opioids, Alpha2 agonists, Local anesthetics, NSAIDs, Ketamine, MAO Inhibitors
Term
What type of acupuncture is high frequency? Low frequency?
Definition
Electro-acupuncture; Therapeutic acupuncture
Term
Short term hypoalgesia is associated w/ ____ & ____.
Definition
Stress-induced analgesia & Descending inhibitory control
Term
Give an example of alternative analgesia.
Definition
Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation
Term
TENS induces release of ____ & stimulates ____ pathways.
Definition
Endogenous opioids, glutamate, GABA; Serotonergic
Term
Do rods or cones have more photopigment?
Definition
Rods
Term
How many photons does it take to stimulate rods?
Definition
1
Term
How many photons does it take to stimulate cones?
Definition
>100
Term
What are more sensitive, rods or cones?
Definition
Rods
Term
What type of vision requires quick regeneration of bleached pigments?
Definition
Daylight Vision
Term
What are 4 adaptations to light & dark?
Definition
Light Sensitivity, Pupillary Reflex, Photopigment Concentration, Tapetum Lucidum
Term
What is the pupillary reflex initiated by?
Definition
Changes in light intensity
Term
What constricts the circular iris mm?
Definition
Parasympathetic fibers
Term
Pupillary Constriction
Definition
Miosis
Term
Pupillary Dilation
Definition
Mydriasis
Term
What leads to mydriasis?
Definition
Contraction of radial iris mm.
Term
What contracts the radial iris mm?
Definition
Sympathetic fibers
Term
Increased amount of light sensitive pigment =
Definition
Sensitization
Term
Decreased amount of light sensitive pigment =
Definition
Desensitization
Term
In darkness, what happens to pigment epithelium stores of Vit A?
Definition
Converted to cis-retinal
Term
In daylight, what happens to cis-retinal?
Definition
Converted to & stored as Vit A
Term
The segment of the external world seen by the fixed eye in the fixed head
Definition
Visual Field
Term
Is the binocular field central or peripheral?
Definition
Central
Term
Is the monocular field central or peripheral?
Definition
Peripheral
Term
The binocular field is seen by ____ eye(s).
Definition
Both
Term
The monocular field is seen by ____ eye(s).
Definition
One
Term
What does the binocular field enable?
Definition
3D vision
Term
What does a large monocular field enable?
Definition
Good surveillance of external world
Term
What animals benefit most from binocular vision?
Definition
Predators
Term
What animals benefit most from monocular vision?
Definition
Prey
Term
What does the visual field consist of?
Definition
Binocular/Central & Monocular/Peripheral fields
Term
Axons from ganglion cells exit at the optic disc as the _____.
Definition
Optic Nerve
Term
Fibers from ____ portions of the retina cross over in the ____.
Definition
Nasal/Peripheral; Optic Chiasm
Term
Fibers from ___ portions of the retina stay ipsilaterally & continue into the ____.
Definition
Temporal/Central; Optic Tract
Term
Outline the flow of fibers from the optic tract to the visual cortex.
Definition
OT-->Lateral Geniculate Body/Thalamus-->Visual Cortex
Term
How much crossing over is present in the visual pathway of humans?
Definition
50%
Term
How much crossing over is present in the visual pathway of predators?
Definition
60-70%
Term
How much crossing over is present in the visual pathway of herbivores?
Definition
80-90%
Term
How is conscious vision tested?
Definition
Observing animal's rxn to visual stimuli & Menace Response
Term
What is tested by observing the animal's rxn to visual stimuli?
Definition
Central & Peripheral vision in both eyes
Term
What is tested by the Menace Response? (What components of the visual pathway?)
Definition
CN2, 7, & Visual Cortex
Term
What is needed for the Menace Response?
Definition
Conscious vision
Term
Some fibers from the OT peel off and synapse with the _____.
Definition
Pretectal Nucleus/Mesencephalon
Term

Pretectal nucleus --> _____ --> _____ --> _____

--> Miosis

Definition
Parasympathetic Nucleus of CrN 3; Ciliary Ganglion; LMN to circular smooth mm. of iris
Term
What is the direct PLR?
Definition
Shining a light into one eye leads to miosis of same eye
Term
What is indirect/consensual PLR?
Definition
B/c of crossing over in the OX, the iris of the opposite eye also constricts
Term
Does the PLR require conscious vision?
Definition
No
Term
What animal has 100% crossing over of optic fibers, but no consensual light reflex?
Definition
Snakes
Term
What are the deficits from a lesion in: retina, ON, OX, OT?
Definition
Vision, PLR
Term
What are the deficits from a lesion in: LGN, Striations, Visual Cortex?
Definition
Vision
Term
What are the deficits from a lesion in: Pretectum, CN3 nucleus, Ciliary Ganglion, CN3
Definition
PLR
Term
What is another name for the third eye?
Definition
Parietal Eye
Term
What animals have parietal eyes?
Definition
Lizards, Frogs, Sharks, some other Fish
Term
Where is the parietal eye situated?
Definition
On the head btw the eyes
Term
What does the parietal eye contain?
Definition
Rudimentary Lens & Retina
Term
What covers the parietal eye?
Definition
Integument = Cornea
Term
What is the parietal eye connected to?
Definition
Pineal gland
Term
What is the pineal gland involved with?
Definition
Circadian rhythm, Detection of seasonal changes
Term
What does the outer ear consist of?
Definition
Pinna, External Ear Canal, Tympanic Membrane
Term
What does the middle ear consist of?
Definition
Malleus, Incus, Stapes, Oval Window, Round Window
Term
What does the inner ear consist of?
Definition
3 Semicircular Canals & Vestibule (Utricle & Saccule), Cochlea
Term
What is another term for the inner ear?
Definition
Labyrinth
Term
What part(s) of the inner ear are for equilibrium?
Definition
Semicircular Canals & Vestibule
Term
What part(s) of the inner ear are for hearing?
Definition
Cochlea
Term
What are the components of the cochlea?
Definition
Scala vestibuli, Scala tympani, Scala media, Basilar Membrane, Vestibular Membrane, Spiral Organ
Term
Which component of the cochlea is the cochlear duct?
Definition
Scala media
Term
Where does the spiral organ sit?
Definition
On the basilar membrane in the cochlear duct
Term
What does the spiral organ consist of?
Definition
Sound R's & Supporting cells
Term
What are the cells of the sound R's in the spiral organ?
Definition
Outer hair cells (3 rows) & Inner hair cells (1 row)
Term
What covers the spiral organ?
Definition
Tectorial membrane
Term
What surrounds the spiral organ?
Definition
Endolymph
Term
What are hair cells of the ear overlaid by?
Definition
Tectorial membrane
Term
What do hair cells of the ear synapse with?
Definition
First-order sensory neurons of the vestibulocochlear n.
Term
What determines pitch?
Definition
Frequency
Term
What determines loudness?
Definition
Amplitude
Term
What detects changes in amplitude & frequency?
Definition
Basilar Membrane
Term
What is the function of the external ear?
Definition
Direct sound waves into ear canal
Term
What happens to the ear drum when it is struck by sound waves?
Definition
It vibrates
Term
Where is vibration of the ear drum transmitted? (Via what?)
Definition
Via ossicles to the Oval window
Term
How much does the oval window amplify sound waves?
Definition
20x
Term
What happens when the oval window vibrates?
Definition
Causes Perilymph pressure waves in the scala vestibuli
Term
Where are vibrations from the scala vestibuli transmitted?
Definition
Vestibular membrane
Term
Where are vibrations from the vestibular membrane transmitted?
Definition
Endolymph of cochlear duct
Term
Where are vibrations from the cochlear duct transmitted?
Definition
Basilar membrane/Spiral organ
Term
What happens when vibrations reach the basilar membrane?
Definition
It deviates & pushes the spiral organ against or away from the tectorial membrane
Term
What happens when the basilar membrane pushes the spiral organ?
Definition
Causes deformation of sensory hair cells & their cilia
Term
What animals can recover from hearing damage?
Definition
Birds, & some reptiles
Term
Why can birds recover from hearing damage?
Definition
Stem cells in cochlea
Term
What is caused by the mvmt of cilia against or away from the tectorial membrane?
Definition
Electrical changes & Transduction of sound
Term
What connects adjacent cilia?
Definition
Tip links
Term
What is ea. tip link connected to?
Definition
A mechanically gated cation channel
Term
What effect does mvmt against the tectorial membrane have on cilia?
Definition
Stretching of cilia
Term
What does stretching of cilia do to cation channels? What does this allow/inhibit?
Definition
Opens them, allowing K+ ions to flow into hair cells
Term
Stretching of cilia leads to ____, ____, & nerve impulses in CrN ____.
Definition
Depolarization, release of NT, 8
Term
What does the opposite mvmt (not stretching) of cilia do to cation channels?
Definition
Closes them --> Hyperpolarization
Term
Sound waves of various frequencies cause specific regions of the _____ to vibrate more than other regions.
Definition
Basilar membrane
Term
Each segment of the basilar membrane is tuned for a particular ____.
Definition
Pitch/Frequency
Term
What is echolocation?
Definition
A specialized transmitter-receiver sensory sys. of high frequency sound to locate objects
Term
What are the 2 steps of echolocation?
Definition
Emission & Reflection
Term
Sound of ______ & _____ (nature of the sound) is emitted via the ___ (structure) or by clicking of the ___ (structure) in echolocation.
Definition
High frequency & intensity; Larynx; Tongue
Term
When sound is reflected from objects in echolocation, it is perceived via ____ and transmitted to the ___.
Definition
Mandibles; Inner ear
Term
What is generated in the animal's brain by echolocation?
Definition
a 3D picture of the animal's surroundings
Term
What protects the inner ear against being deafened in echolocation?
Definition
Contraction of middle ear mm. before sound emission which dampen vibration
Term
What is the term for the contraction of middle ear mm. in echolocation?
Definition
Tympanic reflex
Term
What is deafness?
Definition
Partial or complete loss of hearing
Term
What are the 2 main types of deafness?
Definition
Conduction & Nerve
Term
What are the 2 types of nerve deafness?
Definition
Acquired & Congenital
Term
What are some causes of acquired deafness?
Definition
Senile degeneration, ototoxic drugs, inflammations, trauma
Term
What are some factors contributing to congenital deafness?
Definition
Merle gene, Piebald gene, whiteness, blue eye coloration
Term
What is merle?
Definition
Dilution of hair color
Term
What is piebald?
Definition
Amount & distribution of white
Term
What is conduction deafness?
Definition
Defect of ext. ear canal, ear drum, middle ear
Term
What is nerve deafness?
Definition
Defect of inner ear/spiral organ (or extreme damage to auditory pathways in the BS)
Term
What is congenital deafness?
Definition
Spiral organ hypoplasia/aplasia
Term
When does hearing develop in puppies & kittens?
Definition
1-2 wks after birth
Term
When are hearing test performed in cats & dogs?
Definition
5-6wks of age
Term
What is one hearing test?
Definition
Brainstem Auditory Evoked Response
Term
Ruptured tympanic membrane is an example of ___ deafness.
Definition
Conduction
Term
What is an example of an ototoxic drug?
Definition
Streptomycin
Term
What is the chance of deafness when a white cat has 2 blue eyes?
Definition
60%
Term
What is the chance of deafness when a white cat has 1 blue eye?
Definition
30%
Term
What is an example of a piebald breed?
Definition
Dalmatian
Term
What are some examples of merle breeds?
Definition
Australian shepherd, Great Dane, Cattle Dogs/Heelers, Collies
Term
What is the function of the vestibular organ?
Definition
Sense of balance
Term
What are the 2 components of sense of balance?
Definition
Static & Dynamic Equilibrium
Term
What is static equilibrium?
Definition
Maintenance of body position (head) in reference to force of gravity
Term
What is dynamic equilibrium?
Definition
Maintenance of body position (head) in response to sudden mvmts (rotational)
Term
What does static equilibrium register?
Definition
Head tilt & linear mvmt
Term
What component of the vestibular organ is responsible for static equilibrium?
Definition
Maculae in the saccule & utricle
Term
How are the maculae positioned relative to e/o?
Definition
Perpendicular
Term
What do the maculae provide?
Definition
Info on head position & linear mvmt
Term
What stimulates the hair cells of the macula?
Definition
Head tilt & sudden linear acceleration
Term
What does the macula consist of?
Definition
Hair cells & stereocilia + 1 long kinocilium; Otolithic membrane; Supporting cells
Term
What does the otolithic membrane of the macula contain?
Definition
calcium carbonate crystals (Otoliths)
Term
Gravity pulls otolithic membrane ______
Definition
In direction of tilt
Term
Head tilt causes ___ of hair bundles.
Definition
Bending
Term
W/ sudden linear acceleration, due to its ____, the otolithic membrane ____ & bends in ___ direction.
Definition
Inertia; Lags behind actual mvmt; Opposite
Term
Describe transduction in the macula.
Definition
Bending of cilia opens/closes transduction ch's; de/repolarization (RPs); inc or dec release of NT; impulses in sensory fibers of vestibulocochlear n.
Term
Each of 3 semicircular canals contains a ____ in its ____.
Definition
Crista; Ampulla
Term
The cristae are at _____ to e/o
Definition
Rt. angles
Term
What is detected by cristae in the semicircular ducts?
Definition
Rotational mvmts
Term
What do cristae contain?
Definition
Hair cells, hair bundles embedded in gelatinous cupula
Term
What happens during rotational mvmt?
Definition
Semicircular ducts move; Endolymph lags behind; Cupula bends; Cilia bend; Transduction ch's open/close; RPs; change in frequency of n. impulses
Term
To maintain balance, info from vestibular organs is transmitted to ________
Definition
4 vestibular nuclei
Term
What 3 things do the vestibular nuclei connect to?
Definition
1) Gamma & Alpha motor neurons of antigravity mm. 2) Cerebellum 3) Nuclei controlling eye mm.
Term
What is the function of Gamma & Alpha motor neurons of antigravity mm.?
Definition
Postural responses
Term
What is the function of the cerebellum?
Definition
Coordination of movements
Term
What is the function of the nuclei controlling eye mm?
Definition
Nystagmus
Term
What type of reflex is physiological nystagmus?
Definition
Vestibular
Term
Normally, as the head rotates, the eyes _____
Definition
remain fixed on current visual field
Term
Normally, the eyes _____ head movement.
Definition
Rotate against
Term
What normally happens as eyes reach the limit of excursion?
Definition
Sudden quick mvmt w/ head rotation
Term
What causes the sudden quick mvmt of the eyes w/ head rotation?
Definition
Differences in firing rates
Term
What causes pathological nystagmus?
Definition
Differences in firing rate under resting condition
Term
Unilateral damage of a ____ organ can lead to pathological nystagmus.
Definition
Vestibular
Term
What is the term for eye mvmts w/o head mvmts accompanied by head tilt & compulsory rotary mvmts?
Definition
Vestibular Syndrome
Term
What are the signs of vestibular syndrome?
Definition
Head tilt, wide stance, hopping
Term
The head usually tilts ____ side of lesion
Definition
Towards
Term
The fast phase of eye mvmt is ____ lesion
Definition
Away from
Term
______ senses supply info on bodily sensation
Definition
Somatic
Term
Somatic senses supply info on bodily sensation of ___, ___, ___, ___.
Definition
Touch, Position or Proprioception, Temperature or Thermoreception, Pain or Nociception
Term
Where do first order neurons enter the SC?
Definition
Dorsal root
Term
Where do first order neurons terminate?
Definition
Gray matter/D horn
Term
What do first order neurons activate?
Definition
Second order neurons
Term
1. order neurons activate 2. order neurons via what 3 substances?
Definition
GABA, Glutamate, Substance P
Term
How do 2. order neurons ascend, & what do they do?
Definition
Via BS to Cortex for conscious perception
Term
How do 2. order neurons descend & what do they do?
Definition
Via LMN; stimulate reflexes
Term
What are the 2 major ascending p'ways of somatic sensation?
Definition
Dorsal Columns/Medial Lemniscus; Spinothalamic Tracts
Term
What senses ascend via the D Columns/M Lemniscus?
Definition
Touch & Proprioception
Term
What senses ascend via the Spinothalamic Tracts?
Definition
Pain & Temperature
Term
Where is the tract of ascending axons of 1 order neurons in the DC/ML?
Definition
Btw midline & dorsal horn
Term
In the DC/ML, where are the axons from the lower body? What are they called?
Definition
Close to midline; Fasciculus Gracilis
Term
In the DC/ML, where are the axons from the mid/upper body? What are they called?
Definition
More lateral; Fasciculus Cuneatus
Term
Where do the axons of the DC/ML terminate?
Definition
Nucleus Gracilis & Nucleus Cuneatus (Ipsilaterally)
Term
Describe 2-order neurons of the DC/ML.
Definition
Cross over & ascend as ML via pons, midbrain to thalamus (Contralateral)
Term
Describe 3-order neurons of the DC/ML.
Definition
Project to somatosensory cortex for conscious perception
Term
Where to 1 order neurons of the ST tract terminate?
Definition
D horn
Term
What do 1 order neurons of the ST tract synapse with? What happens to them after?
Definition
2-order neurons; decussate immediately
Term
DC/ML is ____, whereas ST is ____.
Definition
Ipsilateral; Contralateral
Term
Where do 2 order neurons of the ST tract terminate?
Definition
Thalamus
Term
Where do 3 order neurons of the ST tract project?
Definition
Somatosensory cortex for conscious perception
Term
In animals, many pain interneurons _____ SC & enter many other ____, e.g. _____.
Definition
criss-cross; tracts; Fasciculus Proprius
Term
Collaterals of the ST tract project to ____
Definition
Reticular Formation
Term
The RAS is moderated by input from the ____
Definition
Cortex
Term
The Limbic System is associated with _____.
Definition
Emotions
Term
Descending info from sensory neurons synapse w/ _____ to initiate ____.
Definition
Motor neurons; Protective Reflexes
Term
The RAS keeps the ____ alert.
Definition
Cortex
Term
What is the cerebral cortex responsible for?
Definition
Conscious experience of sensory input (perception), Conscious mvmt, Cognitive skills
Term
How are body areas represented in the somatosensory cortex?
Definition
Disproportionately, d/o species' lifestyle
Term
UMNs control _____
Definition
Voluntary m. functions
Term
Where are UMNs?
Definition
In the brain (Cortex & BS)
Term
What do the axons of UMN form?
Definition
Descending tracts in the SC
Term
What do UMNs do?
Definition
Stimulate/Inhibit LMNs
Term
What part of the SC contains the descending tracts of UMN?
Definition
Lateral & Ventral Funiculi
Term
What are 3 things UMNs are responsible for?
Definition
Initiation of voluntary mvmts of limbs & head, Maintenance of normal m. tone, Regulation of posture
Term
Which funiculi have ascending tracts of UMN? Which have descending?
Definition
L,V: Asc & Des
D: Asc
Term
What are the 2 main UMN systems?
Definition
Pyramidal & Extra-pyramidal
Term
What areas of the brain control UMN?
Definition
Basal ganglia, Thalamus, RAS, Association Cortex, Limbic Sys
Term
What part of the brain constantly compares intended w/ actual mvmts to fine-tune/coordinate?
Definition
Cerebellum
Term
Where do the neurons of the pyramidal system originate?
Definition
Motor Cortex/Frontal Lobe
Term
The motor cortex lies ___ to & is organized like the _____
Definition
Cr; Somatosensory Cortex
Term
In the pyramidal sys, where do areas for sensory inputs lie?
Definition
Adjacent to motor control areas
Term
What are 2 tracts of the pyramidal sys?
Definition
Corticospinal & Corticobulbar
Term
Where does the corticospinal tract decussate?
Definition
Medulla
Term
What mvmts does the corticospinal tract control?
Definition
Skilled, learned voluntary mvmts requiring conscious thought
Term
Corticospinal tract is associated with LMNs of _____
Definition
flexor mm. of distal jts
Term
Which part of the pyramidal sys is well-developed in primates?
Definition
Corticospinal tract
Term
Which funiculus does the corticospinal tract run into?
Definition
Lateral
Term
The corticobulbar tract is associated with LMNs of _____
Definition
CrN
Term
Which mm. are governed by the corticobulbar tract?
Definition
Head mm.
Term
What results from damage to the pyramidal sys of animals?
Definition
Subtle conscious rxn deficits
Term
What results from SC damage in the pyramidal sys? (Ipsi- or contralateral deficits?)
Definition
Ipsilateral deficits
Term
What results from brain damage in the pyramidal sys? (contra- or ipsilateral deficits?)
Definition
contralateral deficits
Term
Which UMN sys is more important in non-primates?
Definition
Extra-Pyramidal
Term
Where do neurons of the extrapyramidal sys originate?
Definition
BS
Term
What are 2 tracts of the extrapyramidal sys?
Definition
Rubrospinal & Reticulospinal
Term
What is the function of the extrapyramidal sys?
Definition
Maintains subconscious m. tone & activates lg'er m. groups to achieve stable posture, balance, & smooth locomotion/gait
Term
Certain EP tracts originate in ___ & ___
Definition
Vestibular nuclei & Visual Tectum
Term
EP tracts originating from the vestibular nuclei control:
Definition
Balance adjustments
Term
EP tracts from the visual tectum receive ___ input to coordinate _____ mvmts
Definition
Visual; Eye/Head/Neck
Term
What results from damage to EP sys?
Definition
Alterations in m. tone, abnormal involuntary mvmts, disturbed posture, severe gait deficits, typical UMN signs
Term
Lesions w/i & Cd to BS cause _____ deficits (___ sys); Contra- or ipsilaterally?
Definition
Gait, EP; Postural problems, EP, P; Ipsilaterally
Term
Lesions rostral to the brain stem cause ____ postural deficits, but no observable gait deficits.
Definition
Contralateral
Term
For exact localization of a lesion, test all ___ & ___
Definition
CrN & spinal nn.
Term
Where is the RAS?
Definition
BS (Medulla, pons, mid-brain)
Term
What is the origin of the reticulospinal tract?
Definition
RAS
Term
RAS dictates m. tone of ____
Definition
Extensors
Term
RAS is tonically active b/o ____ & ____
Definition
intrinsic activity, stimulation by asc sensory neurons
Term
RAS has a central role in _____, ___ & ____ (together w/ ____)
Definition
Consciousness, wakefulness, Sleep (Thalamus)
Term
The thalamus is part of the ___
Definition
Diencephalon
Term
The thalamus is the major relay station for all sensory input to the cortex except ___
Definition
Olfaction
Term
What results from damage to the RAS & thalamus?
Definition
Decreased consciousness, Depression, Confusion, Stupor, Coma
Term
What are the parts of the vestibule?
Definition
Utricle & Saccule
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