Total body water 60%

intracellular 40%                     extracellular 20%

                                     interstitial (b/w cells) 15%      plasma water 15%  

transcellular low %

Used to determine the effective gradient (pull of water) of a solution.

OSM=M*# of particles

solute     molarity      OSM

MgCl2         .10        .3 OSM

Glucose       .30        .3 OSM

NaCl            .15          .3 OSM  

Isotonic has an equal amount of dissolved particles inside the RBC and the solution. No net water movement

Hypertonic solution has more solutes outside of the cell than inside, therefore water leaves the cell cuasing it to shrink. Otherwise known as the crenation of the erythrocyte. 

Hypotonic soultion there are more solutes inside of the RBC. Water moves into the cell causing it to burst, or the hemolysis of the erythrocyte.

Osmotic fragility is the ability for a RBC to withstand hemolysis and can be affected by drugs

Leukocytes (white blood cells) are involved with immunity, humoral and cell-mediated.

humoral: involves b cells which produce antibodies to fight infetion

cell-mediated: T cells are directly involved with the attack of the foreign substance.

Formation of a blood clot using thrombocytes (platelets)

Begins with vasoconstrictors

Platelets adhere and begin degranulation which forms seratonin (more vasoconstrictors)

Second phase, prothrombin is turned into thrombin by an activator

Fibrinogen is converted to fibrin

Fibrin forms a loose mesh that platelets and RBC's adhere to, finally forming the blood clot

Largest part of the brain

Deals with sensory items and educatability

Part of the lymphatic system, located between cells

Store b-lymphocytes and remove wastes

Parathyroid glands

Bones, intestines, and kidneys

Increases calcium concentration in blood

Ovaries

Mammary glands, uterus

Prepares uterus for pregnancy

Adrenal medulla

muscles and blood vessels

Regulates heart rate
"fight or flight" response 

Anterior pituitary

Sex glands

triggers ovulation

Growth hormone

(somatotropin)

Anterior pituitary gland

Throughout body

Stimulates growth and development

Adrenal cortex

Blood/Kidney

Regulate blood mineral content

Pancreas

Throughout body

Regulates blood glucose levels
Increases storage of glycogen

Facilitates glucose intake by body cells 

Thyroid gland

Throughout body

Regulation of metabolism

Anterior pituitary gland

thyroid gland

triggers secretion of thyroid hormones

Posterior pituitary gland

female genitals

triggers contraction of the uterus during labor

stimulates milk letdown

Stimulation increases permeability of membrane for Na

Na rushes in

Reverse membrane potential

(+) inside and (-) outside

Na flow inward stops

Permeability to K increases

Resting membrane potential re-established

Polarized (-) inside and (+) outside of cell membrane = -70mV

From unequal distribution of Na and K ions on the inside and outside of the neuron membrane

Active transport of Na to outside (Na/K ATPase Pump)

3 Na out

2 K in

Malleus (mallet), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup)

All assist in transmitting sound frequencies from the tympanic membrane

Network within the spongy bone without blood vessels

Space between is filled with red bone marrow (supplies nutrients to osteocytes)

Part of the Haversian system

Located in the retina

Responsible for black and white vision

Vestibular portion in ear

One of two organs (saccule)

Sensory for position and equilibrium

Systole

Diastole

Systole: peak of arterial pressure and contraction of the atrium or ventricle, respectively

Diastole: low point of arterial pressure and the atrium or ventricle is relaxed

AV valves open

Ventricles receive blood from atriums

Atria contract and empty

Ventricles contract, closing the AV valves

Atria relax and fill

Ventricular pressure increases

Blood is ejected from ventricles through semilunar valves

Ventricles relax after semilunar valves close

90% of the mass in testes

Purpose of secretion of white serous is unknown

Absent in the boar and dog

Creation of spermatazoa

Promote the leutinizing hormone which controls testosterone levels and is required for spermatogenesis

Initiates spermatogenesis at puberty

Stabilizes testosterone

Triggers ovulation

LH stimulatse secretion of androgens

FSH stimulates conversion of androgen to estrogen

FSH stimulates formation of LH receptors

Antrum forms from separation of granulosa cells

Increased estrogen causes preovulatory surge of LH

LH surge promotes maturation of oocytes (meiosis)

Formation of multivesicular bodies (MVBs)

MVBs secrete proteolytic enzymes, allow ovluation
LH surge reduces FSH receptors and estrogen declines

Follicular phase to luteal phase

Matura follicle becomes corpus luteum 

CL secretes progesterone which causes decrease in output of FSH and LH by ant. pituitary

CL regresses and progesterone begins to decrease

Decrease in progesterone causes FSH and LH secretion to increase

Fertilization-ampulla

Cleavage-oviduct

Blastocyst-expansion and hatching from zona pellucida

Implantation-endometrium of uterus

Gestation lengths

cow

ewe

mare

sow

cow-281

ewe-141

mare-337

sow-114

Diffuse-horses and pigs (horseshoe shape)

Cotyledonary-ruminants (seahorse shape)

zonary-carnivores (pig in a blanket)

discoid-humans, apes, monkeys (circle with protusion)

Placenta membranes

Cotyledon, caruncle, placentome

cotyledon-fetal side of placenta

caruncle-maternal side of placenta

placentome-cotyledon and caruncle together

proteins

caseins, whey proteins (albumins & immunoglobins-transferred)

carbohydrates

lactose, unique to mammary gland

milk fat

triglycerides, long and short chain fatty acids

ruminants use acetate from cellulase carbohydrate digestion (de novo)

non-ruminants use glucose

growth and development of mammary gland

estrogen and progesterone

ability of alveolar cells to secrete milk

1) increase mammary enzyme activity

2) prostaglandin-causes lysis of CL lowering progesterone

estrogen-begin to increase adn stimulate lactogen (prolactin)

lactogen-casein synthesis

growth hormone-direct nutrients to mammary glands

Antibodies provided to calf that decline after birth, until about 60 hours of life

Protects against infection

Oxytocin causes milk letdown

Prolactin/lactogen

Growth hormone

Epinephrine blocks oxytocin

Head-receives sperm cells

Body-maturation of sperm cells

Tail-finish maturation, storage

1) dissolved in plasma 7-10%

2) plasma proteins 20-30%

3) bound to hemoglobin 20-30%

4) converted to bicarbonate ions 60-70%

dissolved in plasma 1.5%

bound to hemoglobin 98.5%

Partial Pressures

oxygen

DUNH DUNH DUUUUNNNNNHHHH

inspired air 160mmHg

alveoli of lungs 104mmHg

blood leaving alveolar capillaries 104mmHg

blood entering tissue capillaries 104mmHg

blood leaving tissue capillaries 40mmHg

blood entering alveolar capillaries 40mmHg

Expired air 120mmHg

Partial pressures

CO2

kewl man

inspired air 160mmHg

alveoli of lungs 40mmHg

blood leaving alveolar capillaries 40mmHg

blood leaving tissue capillaries 45mmHg

expired air 120mmHg

Signal from acetylcholine releases Ca2+ from E.R.

Ca2+ binds to troponin-change in actin

cross bridges form

power stroke of myosin head

ADP and phosphate ions dissociate from myosin

ATP binds to myosin

actin returns to relaxed state

action potential

resting membrane potential=-70mV

(-) inside (+) outside

stimulation causes permeability in membrane

allows Na+ to rush into membrane

membrane depolarizes

(+) inside (-) outside

after max action potential is reached Na+ flow stops

permeability increases for K to go out

cell repolarizes