Term
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Definition
| The process during development through which an individual becomes either male or female |
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Term
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Definition
| the genetic info contained in the DNA; this is fixed at fertilization and remains constant throughout life |
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Term
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Definition
| determines gonadal sex, which results in secretion of specific hormones that determine phenotypic sex (XX, XY). |
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Term
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Definition
| 23 pairs of chromosomes= 22 development + 1 sex determinant |
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Term
| Who determines offspring? (Mammals, Birds) |
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Definition
Mammals: Male determines the sex (XY- male)
Birds: Females determines the sex |
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Term
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Definition
| The physical characteristic of males or females that can change over time - external (boobs, vagina, beard, penis, etc.) |
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Term
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Definition
| due to secretions of hormones from gonads |
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Term
| Genotypic sex determines... |
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Definition
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Term
| Gonadal hormone secretions determine... |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| On the Y chromosome, and if present, the gonads produce testes; if they are not present, the ovaries develop |
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Term
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Definition
| testes secrete Anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH) which causes the mullerian ducts to regress; they also secrete testosterone, which promotes the development of Wolfian ducts |
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Term
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Definition
| in the absence of testes, AMH is not secreted so the Mullerian ducts continue to develop and wolfian ducts regress without testosterone |
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Term
| Female (Genes, Gonads, Sex characteristics) |
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Definition
| XX, ovaries, Breasts & widened hips |
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Term
| Male (Genes, Gonads, Sex characteristics) |
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Definition
| XY, tests, beard & deep voice |
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Term
| Testicular Feminization Mutation (Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome) |
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Definition
- male genotype (XY)
- defective gene for androgen receptors
- absence of testes, no male genitals (testosterone is present but useless)
- female phenotype
- not detected until puberty- no menstruation |
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Term
| Persistent Mullerian Duct Syndrome |
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Definition
- male genotype (XY)
- fail to produce AMH or lack receptors
- Testosterone exposure occurs
- Male genitals do develop
- also have uterus that never regressed
- internal genitalia of male with female phenotype |
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Term
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Definition
- individuals only have one X chromosome (Xnull)
- lack of Y chromosome, no male genitals
- lack of second X, no ovaries
- female phenotype, but need estrogen supplementation
- infertile |
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Term
| Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) |
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Definition
- during development, adrenals secrete high levels of stress hormones (androgens)
- genetic male (XY) develop normally
- genetic female (XX) develop female internal genitalia and enlarged clitoris and deformed labia (male external
- physical and mental development as male |
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Term
| Organizational Hormone Effect |
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Definition
| Permanent effects of hormone exposure that occur early in development |
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Term
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Definition
| presence of masculine brain and behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| presence of feminine brain and behavior |
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Term
| Male Brain Determination Process |
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Definition
| Testosterone produce in testes --> T readily crosses blood/brain barrier --> T is converted into estrogen by aromatase --> E maculinizes the brain |
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Term
| Female brain determination process |
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Definition
| Developing ovaries release estrogen --> E crosses the blood/brain barrier and binds to alpha-fetoprotein (making sure the brain isn't masculinized) |
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Term
| Sex Differences in Cognition |
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Definition
female monkeys prefer girl-typical toys and male monkeys prefer boy-typical toys
- these differences are due to hormones |
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Term
| Males Cognition specifics |
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Definition
better with:
- spatial abilities (mental rotations, route learning, visualization of spatial relationships)
- mathematical reasoning and problem solving
- gross motor skills involving strength |
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Term
| Female Cognition specifics |
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Definition
better with:
- verbal skills (fluency, rate of speech acquisition, spelling & grammar)
- computational accuracy
- fine motor skills and finger dexterity
- short-term memory for object locations |
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Term
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Definition
- male advantage
- CAH (massive overproduction of androgen perinatally)
- male-like play patterns
- women with CAH outperformed other female relatives
- prepubertal CAH girls resembled males in spatial abilites |
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Term
| Activational Hormone Effects |
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Definition
| transient effect of hormone exposure that occur later in development |
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Term
| Cyclicity: 2 ovary functions |
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Definition
1. release of eggs (ovulation)
2. synthesis of steroid hormones |
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Term
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Definition
| site of estrogen production in ovary (estrogen induces behavioral estrous- sex seeking behavior) |
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Term
| corpus luteum (degenerating follicle) |
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Definition
transient endocrine gland that produces lots of progesterone
- progesterone prepares the uterus for implantation of fertilized eggs |
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Term
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Definition
- ovulation occurs, cycle begins again (unless pregnancy)
- with sufficient vaginal stimulation, the corpora lutea do not regress (they remain throughout pregnancy)
- if pregnancy doesn't occur, corpora lutea remain large for about 14 days before regressing (pseudopregnancy)
- estrous cycle cease during pregnancy |
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Term
| Effects across menstrual cycle |
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Definition
- higher scores on spatial tests when menstruating (estrogen levels are lowest)
- faster, more accurate performance on verbal tasks with high estrogen and progesterone |
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Term
| Female rodent sex behavior |
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Definition
- receptivity: willingness and ability to mate (lordosis, arches back, lifts head, moves tails to permit penetration)
- proceptivity: eagerness to mate (hopping, darting, ear wiggling) |
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Term
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Definition
- mounting: copulatory position
- intromission: 200-300 ms insertion of penis
- ejaculation: after 10-12 intromissions, semen is released
- refractory period: after copulation where male refrains from sexual activity (coolidge effect) |
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Term
| castration of male rats in infancy causes them to become: |
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Definition
| demasculinized and feminized |
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Term
| treatment of female rats with testosterone in infancy causes them to become: |
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Definition
| defeminized and masculinized |
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Term
| Perinatal estrogen exposure |
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Definition
- during organizational period is necessary for female corpus callosum development
- without this: less open field activity, more anxiety, defeminized sexual behavior, abnormal growth |
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Term
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Definition
| stimulus --> perception of stimulus --> emotion --> bodily arousal |
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Term
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Definition
| stimulus --> perception of stimulus --> bodily arousal --> emotion |
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Term
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Definition
| event --> brain perceives signal --> turns on ANS (send blood to muscles, activate stress response, general arousal) --> interpret those signals as emotions |
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Term
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Definition
| facial expressions can affect emotions |
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Term
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Definition
| genuine- wrinkles around the eyes |
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Term
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Definition
- higher injury = less emotion
- signals from body cannot go to brain |
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Term
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Definition
| stimulus --> perception of stimulus --> emotion and bodily arousal simultaneously |
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Term
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Definition
| stimulus --> perception of stimulus, bodily arousal, emotion cycle |
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Term
| Dutton $ Aron (1974)- arousal interpretation experiment |
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Definition
- interviewed by hot experimenter on high bridge or low bridge
- measured attraction (high bridge, more attraction) |
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Term
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Definition
| feelings associated with behavioral, autonomic, & hormonal |
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Term
| Behavioral brain areas (emotion) |
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Definition
| muscles, skeletal structures |
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Term
| Autonomic brain areas (emotion) |
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Definition
| sympathetic & parasympathetic |
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Term
| Hormonal brain areas (emotion) |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| amygdala integrates information; it receives and sends info to many different areas of the brain & cortex |
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Term
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Definition
| receives info from brain and cortex |
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Term
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Definition
- could argue is the most important part for emotions (esp, stress, anxiety, fear, etc.)
- lesion --> decrease in fear/stress
- stimulation --> increase in fear/stress |
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Term
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Definition
- controlling our emotions and behaviors (calms the amygdala- reasoning)
- Ventro-medial PFC:
~extinction- unpairing CS and CR
~Lesion- impaired extinction (animal cannot relearn to not fear)
~stimulation- response inhibition |
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Term
| Moral dilemmas & vmPFC damage |
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Definition
- people with damage are more likely to engage in utilitarian moral judgment
- no qualms with pushing one guy over a cliff |
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Term
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Definition
| heat of the moment murderers had decreased PFC activity because they don't have that mediator for their anger (Raine, 1998) |
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Term
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Definition
serotonin inhibits aggressive behaviors
- destruction of serotonergic neurons --> increase in aggressive/impulsive behavior
- Low 5 - HT (serotonin) --> more dangerous behavior |
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Term
| Low 5-HT (serotonin levels) in humans |
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Definition
- antisocial personality, increased anxiety, depression
- it's known as the love drug when there's a lot |
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Term
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Definition
- Perceptual (sensory)
- Stimulus-response (classical/operant conditioning, LTM)
- Instrumental (procedural, LTM; learning new response)
- Relational (episodic, LTM) |
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Term
| Stimulus-Response Learning (Classical Conditioning) |
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Definition
| creating/ reinforcing an automatic response |
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Term
| Stimulus-Response Learning (Operant Conditioning) |
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Definition
| creating/ reinforcing a behavior like gambling |
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Term
| Stimulus-Response Learning (Motor learning) |
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Definition
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Term
| Physiological Changes (Stimulus-Response Learning) |
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Definition
Neuron strength (strong--> very likely to have EPSP fire)
leads response synapse to get stronger |
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Term
| Long term potentiation definition |
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Definition
| increases the excitability of the receiving neuron to specific signal & increases in efficiency of the signal that was already there |
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Term
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Definition
- leads to more AMPA receptors
- these control sodium channels, so these open up
- this allows for sodium to flood in and cause depolarization
- AMPA receptors move from the base to the tips and react to glutamate
- this causes excitation
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Term
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Definition
- due to depolarization, NMDA receptors (which control calcium channels) that have been blocked by magnesium, open up and ejects the magnesium
- Calcium then floods in and acts as a second messenger in the post-synaptic cell
- Calcium allows for CaM - KII to be activated
- this creates more AMPA receptors
- Nitric Oxide is stimulated by calcium and may increases glutamate (retrograde messenger)
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Term
| Rapid electrical Stimulation (non-associative LTP) |
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Definition
- rapid stimulation of a single cell, more glutamate is released
- prolonged AMPA activity leads to depolarization
- depolarization leads to ejection of magnesium
- calcium then enters and changes functioning of post-synaptic cell |
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Term
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Definition
| sensory stores process and remember info (characteristics, names (iconic & echoic)) |
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Term
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Definition
Visual
Sperling- tachistoscope study
- participant sees letters for 50 milliseconds and then asked to identify as many letters as they can remember |
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Term
| Iconic Memory experiment (Sperling, 1960) |
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Definition
Average person could remember 4.5 letters
- iconic memory only holds 4-5 items
- iconic memory fades before answers can be provided |
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Term
| Sperling's finding (tone experiment) |
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Definition
- when exposed to certain tone, participants were asked to recall a specific line of letter
- they mostly were able to recall the right line
- suggests that iconic memory holds a lot more than we think, it just fades very quickly (lasts about 150-200 milliseconds) |
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Term
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Definition
| "where" and "how", location, motion, interaction with objects |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Inferior temporal lobe damage |
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Definition
perceptual memory deficits, lose ability to learn or make new perceptual memories
- stimulation to cells leads to perceptual experience that may not be present |
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Term
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Definition
recent info kept active for manipulation and storage
- combines attention, sensory, and LTM
- PFC |
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Term
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Definition
Medial Temporal Lobe
- hippocampus
- parahippocampal areas
- entohinal cortex
connects with other cortical areas |
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Term
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Definition
lesions to hippocampus- disrupts spatial learning
cortical lesions- little effect
- lesions have no effect after 30 days, but there is no learning 1 day after |
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Term
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Definition
role varies with time
- important with transferring info to novel situations
- if there's no transformation, no learning |
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Term
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Definition
inversely correlated with MTL activity
- retrieves and organizes info from other areas |
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Term
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Definition
connects sensory and motor areas
- learned behavior is transferred to basal ganglia |
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Term
| Bilateral Mediotemporal lobectomy (H.M.) |
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Definition
-hippocampus & amygdala
- temporally graded retrograde amnesia
- anterograde amnesia (couldn't create new memories)
- STM could not transfer to LTM |
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Term
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Definition
memories are not stored veridically or in one area & is not perfect
-Loftus and colleagues: watched video and asked question about speed of car |
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Term
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Definition
result of severe alcoholism
- anterograde / retrograde amnesia
- confabulation: create memories that never occurred
- can't suppress irrelevant memories |
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Term
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Definition
doesn't store memories but is important for the experience of the memories
- creation of declarative memories
- transfer to new situations
transfer to cortex |
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Term
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Definition
| those memories that one can remember and discuss |
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Term
| What hemisphere is language found in most people? |
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Definition
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Term
| Right hemisphere important for... |
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Definition
- visuo-spatial information
- organize story
- expression & emotion in language |
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Term
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Definition
| difficulty producing or comprehending speech NOT due to motor/sensory deficit |
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Term
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Definition
issue with production of speech
features include: agrammatism, anomia, articulation
- low on function words, high on content words
- comprehension is not affected |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| cannot find the right words |
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Term
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Definition
| have trouble saying the words |
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Term
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Definition
can't find the words
- features: circumlocution, fluent, grammatical
- damage to temporal/parietal lobe, sparing Wernicke's |
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Term
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Definition
stuttering (pauses, repetition, stretching out)
- disappears when speaking along with another person |
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Term
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Definition
| understanding words (recognition & comprehension) |
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Term
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Definition
meaningless speech
- features: fluent, intonation/ prosody is preserved, few content words; many function words
- comprehension is disrupted |
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Term
| Broca's area & other abilities |
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Definition
- interactive gestures
- disrupted writing (mirrors speech)
- some can, some cannot read
- know they have a problem |
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Term
| Wernicke's aphasia & other abilities |
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Definition
- referential gestures
- disrupted writing (mirrors speech)
- no comprehension of text when reading
- don't know they have a problem |
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Term
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Definition
- cannot understand speech, but can identify sounds (not deaf)
- can recognize emotion associated with speech (like a dog)
- can read lips |
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Term
| Brain areas affected by Pure Word Deafness |
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Definition
Auditory input to W.A.
- W.A. has damage |
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Term
| Transcortical sensory aphasia |
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Definition
connection between sound and meaning is gone
- Can repeat speech of others but cannot recognize the words and cannot produce words
- cannot comprehend what they are saying |
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Term
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Definition
opposite of transcortical aphasia
- they are fluent, meaningful, but they have difficulty repeating
- semantic info is preserved but cannot repeat nonsense words
- they may repeat home as house, so they understand the meaning |
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Term
| Arcuate Fasciculus (overview) |
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Definition
| - connects the Broca's & Wernicke's areas |
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Term
| Arcuate Fasciculous (2 pathways) |
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Definition
1. Direct- Sound info-->Wernicke's-->Broca's (conduction aphasia)
2. Indirects: Meaning-->connect B & W to Inferior Parietal Cortex (Anterior- Broca's>IPC) (Posterior- Wernicke's>IPC) (TSA) |
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Term
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Definition
sounds--> Wernicke's
definitions--> sensory association cortex (damage to this can delete words from the dictionary) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
can't read, but can write
- perceptual disorder
- damage to pathway to V1 & corpus callosum |
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Term
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Definition
| important for agraphia & possibly alexia |
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Term
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Definition
| we are better at detecting letters when they are embedded in a word |
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Term
| Brain areas (Phonological) |
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Definition
| dorsal stream --> near Broca's area |
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Term
| Brain areas (whole words reading) |
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Definition
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Term
| Visual Word Form Area (VWFA) |
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Definition
part of visual cortex
- seperate from other visual areas
- highly sensitive to learning |
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Term
| Theories for Reading (2 theories) |
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Definition
1. Phonological
2. Whole word |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| phonological- problem matching words to sounds and creating the word) |
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Term
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Definition
- can read
- can't understand |
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Term
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Definition
- phonological issues
- more common with irregular languages (English) |
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Term
| Eye Movements and Reading |
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Definition
we fixate on a spot (approx. 4 characters to left, 14 to right)
- next fixation: approx. 8-10 letters to right
- we do NOT fixate on all words
- we focus on content |
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Term
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Definition
problems with sounds out words
- phonological
- Broca's Area |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Mirror neurons originally found in |
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Definition
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Term
| Mirror neurons active when... |
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Definition
-engaged in motor act
-watching someone else engage in same motor act
-"my action" = "your action"
- 17% of neurons |
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Term
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Definition
- imitation
- action understanding |
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Term
| Evidence for action understanding |
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Definition
| - dancers show more MN activity than non-dancers |
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Term
| Evidence for speech perception (Fridriksson) |
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Definition
| - when people watched people make SPEECH sounds (but did not hear them), the temporal & frontal cortical areas were activated |
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Term
| Evidence for speech perception (Pulvermuller) |
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Definition
- functional imaging study
- subjects articulate syllables that contain consonants p & t, which involved lip or tongue movement
- speaking, watching others speak, thinking about speaking, and hearing others speak all activated the same region |
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Term
| Evidence for speech perception (Ito, Tiede, & Ostry) |
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Definition
| - had device pulling facial skin upwards or downwards to mimic head (upward) or had (downward) |
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Term
| Counterarguments to action understanding |
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Definition
we understand actions we cannot perform
- skill doesn't equal understanding |
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Term
| Mirror neurons evolution? |
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Definition
Adaptation: for action understanding
Association: MNs become specialized, learning |
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