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Definition
| An sentence that makes a claim; either true or false |
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Term
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| the reasoning process expressed by an argument |
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| establishes support for the truth of a claim, contains premises and a conclusion |
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| therefore, consequently, it proves that, thus, in conclusion, suggests that, so, it follows that, implies that, hence, we can infer/conclude that |
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| because, assuming that, as indicated by, since, as shown by, the fact that, given that |
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| Use because to provide reasons for how an event occurred(an already accepted fact) |
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| determines if the information in the premises is accurate, correct, or true |
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| determines the strength with which the premises support the conclusion |
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| the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises, true premises make it impossible for the conclusion to be false |
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| The premises make the conclusion probable , true premises make it improbable for the conclusion to be false |
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| Arguments that are mathematical, geometrical, definitions |
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| Arguments that are analogical, legal, moral, statistical, scientific |
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| Whether a deductive argument is valid or invalid |
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| True premises make it impossible for the conclusion to be false |
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| invalid deductive argument |
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| Even if the premises are true, it is still possible for the conclusion to be false |
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| whether a deductive argument is sound or unsound |
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| separates logic from truth analysis, ex. all beagles are dogs, all dogs are mammals, therefore all beagles are mammals |
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| counterexample to a statement |
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Definition
| Provides evidence that a statement is false |
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| counterexample to an argument |
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| shows that true premises do not make the conclusion necessarily true(argument is invalid) |
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| strong inductive argument |
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| true premises make it probably that the conclusion is true |
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| true premises make it improbable that the conclusion is true |
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| cogent inductive argument |
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| the argument is strong and the premises are true |
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| uncogent inductive argument |
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| The argument is weak or has at least one false premise |
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| a single word or group of words that can be the subject of a statement; it can be a common name, a proper name, or even a descriptive phrase |
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| specified by listing the properties or attributes that the term connotes |
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| The class or collection of objects to which the term applies |
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| in a sequence of terms, each term connotes more attributes than the previous term(ex. water, ocean, pacific ocean) |
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| In a sequence of terms, each term denotes a set of objects with fewer members than the previous term(banana, fruit, good, commodity) |
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| descriptions(intension) determine the extension of the term(Cleopatra, queen of Egypt) |
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| intensional(Connotative defintion) |
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| assigns a meaning to a term by listing the properties shared by all the objects denoted by the term |
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| A meaning is assigned to a term by investigating its origin |
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| Defining a term by specifying a measurement procedure(ex. GPA) |
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| definitions by genus and difference |
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| Assigns a meaning to a term(the species) |
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| extensive(denotativ) defintion |
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| Assigns meaning to a term by indicating the class members denoted by the term |
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Definition
| Involves demonstrating the term(ex. by pointing to a member of a class) |
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Term
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| Assigns meaning to a term by naming the individual members of the class denoted by the term(ex. New England means Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, etc.) |
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| assigns meaning to a term by naming subclasses(species)of the class denoted by the term(coal means lignite, subbituminous, etc.) |
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| introduces a new meaning to a term or symbol; both intensional and extensional |
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| A definition based on the common use of a word, term, or symbol(ex. a dictionary defintion) |
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| Definitions that specify the purpose or use of the objects denoted by the term(ex. a cup holds water) |
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| Definitions that reduce the vagueness and ambiguity of a term by providing a sharp focus, often a technical meaning, for a term |
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| Definitions that assign a meaning to a term by providing an understanding of how the term fits into a general theory |
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| Definition that assigns meaning to a term with the direct purpose of influencing attitudes or opinions |
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| Language that is used to convey information has cognitive meaning |
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| Language that is used to express emotion or feelings has emotive meaning |
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| A judgment that someone or something is good or bad, moral or immoral, or better or worse than another person(or thing) |
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| Occurs when people disagree on a matter that involves facts; may involve different emotional attitudes toward the facts |
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| A dispute that occurs when a vague or ambiguous term results in a linguistic misunderstanding |
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| diagram of a simple argument |
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Definition
| A diagram involving an arrow from the premise to the conclusion |
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Definition
| A diagram that reveals the occurrence of independent premises; separate arrows link premises to one conclusion |
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| A diagram that reveals the occurance of dependent premises; premises connected by a bracket that is connected by one arrow to the conclusion |
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Definition
| A diagram that shows that a conclusion from one argument is a premise in the second argument; shows an arrow from the premise to the conclusion, and then from the conclusion to the next conlcusion |
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| A diagram that shows a single premise supporting independent conclusions; has multiple arrows from a single premise to multiple conclusions |
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| Arguments with missing premises, missing conclusions, or both |
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| Principle that states we should choose the reconstructed argument that gives the benefit of the doubt to the person presenting the arugment |
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| When we speak or write for dramatic or exaggerated effect,using language that may be implying things that are not explicitly said |
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| When a statement is disguised in the form of a question |
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| A conditional statement that is used to imply an argument |
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| A disjunction used to disguise a statement or or an implied argument |
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| Whenever one even ensures that another event will happen |
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| When one thing is essential, mandatory, or required in order for another thing to be realized |
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| A logical error in a deductive argument that occurs in the form or structure of an argument |
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| A mistake in reasoning that occurs in ordinary language, including mistakes due to relevance, unwarranted assumption, and ambiguity or diversion |
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Definition
| Fallacies that occur whenever irrelevant premises are offered in support of a conclusion ; often rely on psychological or emotional appeal for their force |
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| "To the person," when a claim is rejected based on alleged character flaws, negative stereotype, or life circumstances of person making the claim |
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| "You too," A type of ad hominem fallacy distinguished by the attempt on one person to avoid the issue at hand by claiming the other person is a hypocrite |
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Definition
| The avoidance of objective evidence in favor of an emotional response, defeating a rational investigation of truth |
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| An emotional plea that relies solely on a sense of pity for support |
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| A threat of harmful consequences used to force acceptance of a course of action would otherwise be unacceptable |
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| An argument built on a position claiming either a statement mush be false because it hasn't been proven true, or a statement must be true because it hasn't been proven false |
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Definition
| When premises that seem to lead logically to once conclusion are used instead to try and support another conclusion |
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| appeal to unqualified authority |
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Definition
| Relies on the opinions of people who have no expertise, training, or knowledge regarding the issue at hand |
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| Fallacies of unwarranted assumption |
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Definition
| Arguments that assume the truth of some unproved or questionable claim |
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Definition
| Assumes as evidence in the premises the very thing that it attempts to prove in the conclusion |
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| A single question that actually contains multiple, hidden parts |
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Definition
| Uses a non-representative sample as support for a statistical claim about an entire population |
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| Rigid application of a generalization; when a generalization is inappropriately applied to the case at hand |
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| Converse accident; a generalization created on the basis of a few instances |
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| Fallacy that claims that, purely for the reason that some argument has been presented often before, it should be disregarded |
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Term
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Definition
| Fallacy where the origin of a person is cited as a reason to discredit his or her arguments, similar to an ad hominem fallacy |
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| A type of genetic fallacy where the origin of a word, its etymology it employed |
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| A claim that appears to statistically significant, but is not |
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Definition
| A fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that only two choices are possible, when in fact others exist |
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Definition
| Fallacy that occurs when two choices are asserted, each leading to an unwanted result, with failure to acknowledge that other possibilities exist |
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Definition
| Occur when a causal connection is assumed to exist between two events when none actually exist |
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| Results from the accidental or chance connection between two events |
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| Involves a short-term pattern noticed after the fact; means that because something happened after the fact it happened because of the fact |
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| Fallacy that occurs when one event is assumed to cause another when both events are the result of a common cause |
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Definition
| A fallacy that occurs when the meanings of terms or phrases are changed within the argument, or when our attention is diverted from the issue at hand |
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Definition
| The intentional or unintentional use of different meanings of words or phrases in an argument |
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| Ambiguity that arises when a poorly constructed statement muddles the intended meaning |
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Definition
| The mistaken transfer of an attribute of the individual parts of an object to the object as a whole |
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Definition
| The mistaken transfer of an attribute of an object as a whole to its individual parts |
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Definition
| Occurs when attention is purposely diverted from the issue at hand |
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| Occurs when someone's written or spoken words are taken out of context, purposely distorting the original argument to create a new, weak argument that can be easily refuted(a straw man can easily be knocked down) |
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Definition
| Occurs when someone completely ignores an opponent's position and changes the subject, diverting the discussion in a new direction |
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Definition
| A claim that a particular human action or object has some degree of importance, worth, or desirability |
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Definition
| A claim that a particular human action or object has some degree of importance, worth, or desirability |
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| Value judgments that focus on human actions as good/bad, right/wrong |
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| Prescriptive value judgment |
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| Value judgment that offers advice and recommends what to go |
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| Normative value judgments |
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| Establish standards for correct moral behavior |
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| Personal taste value judgment |
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| Personal opinion on something; subjective |
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| Objective value judgments |
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| Value judgment based on facts about something |
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| Moral value judgments are moral expressions of our attitudes or emotions |
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Definition
| Moral value judgments are moral expressions of our attitudes or emotions |
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| A class of moral theories in which the moral value of any human action or behavior is determined exclusively by its outcomes |
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Definition
| All humans ought to act in order to maximize the greatest pleasure or happiness for the greatest number of people |
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| All humans ought to act in order to maximize his or her pleasure or happiness |
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| The theory that duty to others is the first and foremost moral consideration |
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| Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative |
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Definition
| Absolute and universal moral laws, your actions or behavior toward others should always be such that you would want everyone to act in the same manner |
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| Although there can be general moral rules, we should not apply not apply those rules to every situation |
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Definition
| All moral value judgments are determined by an individual person's beliefs or by a society's beliefs toward actions or behavior |
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| Naturalistic moral principle |
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Definition
| Since it is natural for humans to desire pleasure and to avoid pain, human behavior ought to be directed at these two ends |
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| A fallacy that concludes from the way that something is and how it should be |
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| Statements to which any rational person would give assent |
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