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| a statement, true or false, that expresses an opinion or belief |
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| a claim that expresses an evaluation of something |
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| a two-part structure of claims, one part (the premise(s)) is given as a reason for thinking the otehr part (the conclusion) is true |
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| what is raised when a claim is called into question |
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| three kinds of arguements |
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| deductive (valid/invalid), inductive (strong/weak), abductive |
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| deductive arguement (validity and soundness) |
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| valid deductive: an argument whose premises being true means that the conclusion must me true |
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| inductive and abductive (strength and weakness) |
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| strong inductive argument: the more support the premises of an inductive or abductive arguemnt provides for its conclusion the stronger the argument |
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| a claim that is offered as a reason for believing another claim is a premise |
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| the claim for which a premise is supposed to give a reason |
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| uppercase letters to stand for terms in categorical claims |
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| displays both possible true values for a variable |
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| which ever claim P might have its negation will have the other ( ~P ) |
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| -> "if...then" "provided that" |
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| first claim in a conditional |
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| the second claim in a conditional |
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| truth-functionally equivalent |
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| two claims that have exactly the same truth table (if Ts and Fs in the columns are in the same arrangement) one can be used in place of another |
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| the word "if" used alone, introduces the antecedent of a conditional. the phrase "only if" introducces the consequent of a conditional |
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| the word "if" used alone, introduces the antecedent of a conditional. the phrase "only if" introducces the consequent of a conditional |
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| "the presence of oxygen is a necessaey condition for combustion" tells us that if we hae combustion then we must have oxygen. NC becomes the consequent of a conditional C-> O |
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| guarantess whatever it is a suff. cond. for. (being born in US is a suff. cond. for citizenship) B -> C |
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| method for proving an arguement invalid or valid |
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| disjunctive argument (DA) |
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P v Q P v Q
~P ~Q
_______________
Q P |
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P & Q P&Q
_____________
p Q |
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| constructive dilemma (CD) |
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P -> Q
R -> S
P v R
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Q v S |
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P -> Q
R -> S
~Q v ~s
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~P v ~R |
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p&Q same as Q&P
PvQ same as QvP |
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| (P -> Q) same as (~Q -> ~P) |
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~(P&Q) same as (~Pv~Q)
~(PvQ) same as (~P&~Q) |
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| [P -> (Q -> R]) same as [(P&Q) -> R] |
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[P&(Q&R)]same as [(P&Q)&R]
[Pv(QvR)] same as [PvQ)vR] |
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[P&(QvR)] same as [(P&Q)v (P&R)]
[Pv(Q&R)] same as[(PvQ)&(PvR)] |
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(PvP) same as P
(P&P) same as P |
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| assume that P is true (add as an additional premise) and then prove that |
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| strength of arguments compared to eachother |
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| general > specific (most Xs are Ys, this is an X, therefore this is a Y) |
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| inductive generalizations |
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| target population (target) |
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| set of Xs trying to generalize a conclusion about |
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| random variation (in random sampling) |
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| error range, error margin |
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| confidence level (random sampling) |
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| math # that tells confidence that sample will be with in error margin |
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| the greater the number the closer alternatives will approach predictable ratios |
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| two terms conclude that one term has feature (f) ther other one will too |
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| overestimate strength of an argument, based on a too small of a sample |
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| overestimate the strength of an argument based on a baised sample |
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| lesson of hasty generalization |
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| illicit inductive conversions |
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| re-oredering true claim, claiming it is still true |
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| abductive inference (reasoning) |
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| inference to the best explanation |
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| if a then b...depends on relationship of a and b |
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| a statment is ambigous when it is subject to more than one interpreation and it isnt clear which interpreation is the correct one |
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| not clear whether a word is being used ot refer to a group collectively or to members of the group individually |
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| assumes that because it is true for the group it is true for individual members as well |
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| assumes that if true for members then true for group |
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| claim that is open to two or more meanings |
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| ambiguous prooun references |
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| when it is not clear to what or whoma pronoun is supposed to refer "the boys chased the girls and they giggled a lot" |
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| less detail a claim provides the more general it is |
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| persuasive or rhetorical definitions |
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| emotive meaning or rhetorical force |
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| positive or negative associations of a word |
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| definition by example (ostensive definition) |
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| naming examples of sort of thing to which term applies |
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| word or phrase that means the same as the term being defined |
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| saying the features that a thing must possess in order for the term being defined to apply to it |
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| rhetorical force (emotive meaning) |
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| words that have tremendous persuasive power, emotional associations |
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| slanters, give good or bad slant regarding a subject |
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| neutral or positive expression instead of one that carries negative assoc. |
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| opp of euphemism. produce negative effect |
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| thought or image about a group of people based on little or no evidence |
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| significant mention (paralipsis) |
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| the speaker casts suspicion on his opponent (innuendo) |
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| assumption through question (innuendo) |
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| watering down claim offering away out (3 out of 4 surveyed) |
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| attempt to make someone or something look less important |
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| ridicule, at the expense of another person (laugh) |
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| extravagant overstatement |
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| suggests evidence for a claim without actually citing evidence |
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| comparision of two things or a likening of one thiong to another in order to make one of them appear better or worse than it might be. |
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| personal attack ad hominem fallacy |
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| thinking a person's defects refute his or her beliefs |
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| thinking a person's inconsistencies refute his or her beliefs |
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| circumstantial ad hominem |
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| thinking a person's circumstances refute his or her beliefs |
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| encouraging others to dismiss what someone will say by citing the speaker's defects, inconsist., circum., or other personal attributes |
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| thinking that the origin or history of a belief refutes it |
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| "rebutting" a claim by offering a distorted or exaggerated version of it |
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| "rebutting" a claim by offering a distorted or exaggerated version of it |
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| thinking that the origin or history of a belief refutes it |
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| "rebutting" a claim by offering a distorted or exaggerated version of it |
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| "rebutting" a claim by offering a distorted or exaggerated version of it |
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