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PHI 2100 Test 2
Philosophy of Logic and Critical Thinking
69
Philosophy
Undergraduate 2
12/03/2012

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Term
Deductive Argument
Definition
claims to be valid or invalid
Term
Inductive Argument
Definition
claims to be strong or weak, rather than valid or invalid
Term
Statistical Generalization
Definition
uses a sample proportion to generalize about a population; must be large, representative, have acceptable premises, and be unbiased
Term
Statistical Application
Definition
from information concerning a population, we draw a conclusion concerning a member or subset of that population
Term
Reference Class
Definition
the group containing a certain feature that should bring up all relevant evidence to bear on a subject
Term
Sufficient Condition
Definition
sufficient if and only if anything that has feature F also has feature G
Term
Necessary Condition
Definition
necessary if and only if anything that lacks feature F also lacks feature G
Term
NCT
Definition
candidate/target must both be present
Term
SCT
Definition
candidate/target must both be absent
Term
Rigorous Testing
Definition
making sure there are many of the right types of cases, some of which are able to fail both SCT and NCT
Term
Causally Relevant Factor
Definition
candidates that survive SCT and NCT and also fit in well with systems of other causally generalization
Term
A Cause
Definition
causally relevant factors that play a key role in our causal investigations
Term
The Cause
Definition
when something is a prior event or change that stands out against the background of fixed conditions
Term
Concomitant Variation
Definition
when the target is always absent/present, but there is a variation of how much it is there
Term
Positively (Negatively) Correlated
Definition
when A varies directly with B; negatively occurs in the opposite direction

4 possibilities when there is correlation:
1. A causes B
2. B causes A
3. some third thing causes A&B
4. accidental correlation
Term
Inference to the Best Explanation
Definition
measured by 7 standards:
1. explanatory
2. deep
3. powerful
4. falsifiable
5. modest
6. simple
7. conservative

when you have settled on a cause that meets the standards, you can say that it has more explanatory value than other causes, or that you have strong inductive support for that hypothesis
Term
Argument from Analogy
Definition
says that if A has properties P, Q, R and so does B, C, D, all of which also have property X, then A probably also has X

is strong if:
1. premises are true
2. similarities are relevant (specific)
3. similarities are important
4. few/no relevant dis-analogies
5. conclusion is of the right strength (usually weak)
Term
Gambler's Fallacy
Definition
assumes things will average out over time

example: you are not more likely to flip a heads just because you've had ten tails in a row
Term
Law of Large Numbers
Definition
the percentage of outcomes will come closer to the theoretical predicted average of out comes the more trials made
Term
Representative Heuristic
Definition
characterizes things as more/less probable based on previous experiences and beliefs
Term
Availability Heuristic
Definition
judging the probability of something based on how easily it comes to mind

example: one assuming death by murder is more common than cancer because of the news
Term
Expected Overall Value
Definition
non-monetary ways to factoring in considerations before making a bet; such as effects of success/failure on one's resources and preferences, diminishing marginal value
Term
Expected Monetary Value
Definition
takes into account probability of winning, net gain, and net loss
Term
Diminishing Marginal Value
Definition
as the payoff gets larger, the value diminishes

example: buying a million lottery tickets, NOT when dealing with the mafia
Term
Decisions Under Risk
Definition
when you know the probabilities of different outcomes
Term
Decisions Under Ignorance
Definition
when you don't know some or all of the probabilities of different outcomes

ways of making decisions under ignorance:
1. rule of dominance
2. rule of insufficient reason
3. maximax rule
4. maximin rule
5. disaster avoidance
Term
Rule of Dominance
Definition
option that's outcome is the best no matter what (obvious choice, but rarely available)
Term
Rule of Insufficient Reason
Definition
assigning arbitrary, but equal probabilities to all outcomes; how you break things down changes what can be the best option
Term
Maximax Rule
Definition
choosing the option with the best outcome (doesn't consider probability)
Term
Maximin Rule
Definition
choosing the option with the best of the worst outcomes (doesn't consider probability)
Term
Disaster Avoidance
Definition
choosing the option that minimizes the chance of a disaster
Term
Refutation
Definition
showing there is adequate reason to reject an argument by proving:
1. premises are false
2. conclusion leads to absurd results
3. conclusion doesn't follow from premises
4. argument begs the question
Term
Counterexample
Definition
universal claim refuted by a single case; defended against by:
1. denying the counterexample is a thing of that kind
2. denying that it lacks said feature
Term
Shallow Counterexample
Definition
one that cannot be handled if you can modify the original claim slightly
Term
Deep Counterexample
Definition
one that can still be handled if you modify the original claim slightly
Term
Reduction Ad Absurdum
Definition
refuting a claim by showing it implies something absurd; standards:
1. is y absurd?
2. does x really imply y?
3. can x be modified in a minor way that it no longer implies y?

*if yes, yes, no, then the argument is a good reductio
Term
Parallel Reasoning
Definition
when you're unsure if a conclusion is false, you can create a similar argument in virtue/form that is in fact invalid; standards:
1. conclusion must be false
2. premises must be true
3. actually invalid

to refute a parallel argument, one can:
1. deny the conclusions is false
2. deny premises are true
3. deny the parallel argument has the same form
Term
Strawmen
Definition
refuting an argument by counterexample or reductio that doesn't accurately characterize the position being refuted; a caricature of a position that is false or problematic
Term
False Dichotomy
Definition
fallacy where one presents only two choices when there are actually more
Term
Sorites Argument (Argument from the Heap)
Definition
claims that a series of insignificant changes cannot result in a significant change; untrue

*example: adding one cent 1,000,000,000 will result in being richness
Term
Vagueness
Definition
unclarity that occurs when something applies along a continuum or a series of small changes; can be fixed by definition or adoption of more precise rules

*example: baldness
Term
Slippery-Slope Arguments
Definition
aim to show there is no significant difference between two things on a continuum; 3 types:
1. Conceptual
2. Fairness
3. Causal
Term
Conceptual Slippery-Slope Arguments
Definition
claims that objects at opposite ends of a continuum don't different in an important enough way to draw a distinction; fix by adding purposes of a proposed theory that helps determine what is important to the theory

*example: Paris Hilton is the same as a salt crystal
Term
Fairness Slippery-Slope Arguments
Definition
claims that differences that do exist are so small that they make it unfair to treat them any differently; still better to draw some line than not one at all

*example: percentages that are between two letter grades
Term
Causal Slippery-Slope Arguments
Definition
claim that one thing that doesn't seem that bad will lead to much more horrible effects; one can respond by (or a combination of both, the strongest way):
1. denying the effects are horrible
2. denying the effects are likely

*example: smoking weed leads to use of black tar heroin
Term
Ambiguity
Definition
occurs if and only if a word/phrase is misleading because it is hard to tell which of a number of possible meanings is being used in the context; two types:
1. Semantic
2. Syntactic

one can respond by:
1. disambiguating
2. using a context that forces one interpretation over another
Term
Semantic Ambiguity
Definition
ambiguity of individual terms or words
Term
Syntactic Ambiguity
Definition
more than one possible interpretation of a sentence due to structure
Term
Disambiguate
Definition
rewriting a sentence so one of its possible meanings becomes clear
Term
Fallacy of Equivocation
Definition
when an argument uses the same expression in different ways in separate parts of the argument

*example: six is an odd number of legs for a horse, odd numbers can't be divided by two; therefore, six can't be divided by two
Term
Lexical or Dictionary Definition
Definition
meaning of a word in a particular language

*example: car- automobile
Term
Disambiguating Definition
Definition
distinguishes which of several meanings is intended

*example: river banks, rather than financial banks
Term
Stipulative Definition
Definition
assigns a meaning to a new word or a new meaning to a familiar word

*example: in this case, a googol means 1 followed by one-thousand zeros
Term
Precising Definition
Definition
draws a sharp boundary around a fuzzy term

*example: what population constitutes a 'small city'
Term
Systematic (Theoretical) Definition
Definition
gives structure to subject matter

*example: terms in geometry
Term
Ad Hominem
Definition
argument directed at the person making the claim rather than their argument; some are justified, some aren't; 3 types:
1. Deniers
2. Silencers
3. Dismissers
Term
Deniers (Ad Hominem)
Definition
deny the truth of what is said or the strength of an argument based on who is making it

*example: it is justified to deny the strength of a hired purger's argument
Term
Silencers (Ad Hominem)
Definition
revoking someone's right to speak without necessarily denying the truth of what they are saying

*example: someone who is not a senator has no right to be speaking their views in congress
Term
Dismissers (Ad Hominem)
Definition
dismiss the speaker as untrustworthy and unreliable as a reason not to believe their argument

*example: a businessman/woman who makes decisions for monetary gain wants embargoes with Cuba to end to benefit from trade, rather than mending relations as he/she may say
Term
Genetic Fallacy
Definition
when the irrelevant origin of an argument is attacked rather than the actual claim

*example: Marxists opposing all views that come from capitalism
Term
Appeal to Authority
Definition
citing someone who has the reasons to support an argument instead of the actual reasons; should answer yes to 1-4:
1. is the authority in the appropriate field?
2. can the kind question be answered with expert consensus?
3. is the authority cited correctly (true claim, spot-check)
4. can the authority be trusted?
5. why is an appeal to authority being made? (the best arguments stand on their own)
Term
Fallacy of Relevance (Appeal to Authority)
Definition
when the cited authority is not in the appropriate field
Term
Fallacy of Excessive Footnotes (Appeal to Authority)
Definition
the best arguments stand on their own, so too many appeals to authority is characteristic of a fallacious argument)
Term
Appeal to Popular Opinion
Definition
when the reason for believing something is because it is widely accepted
Term
Appeal to Tradition
Definition
an appeal to popular opinion that has been accepted for a long time
Term
Appeal to Emotion
Definition
includes appeals to pity (when used to argue a defendant not guilty, usually fallacious), appeals to fear (often amplified), appeals to outrage (be aware of common assumptions), and appeals to positive emotions (make sure positivity isn't clouding negativity)
Term
Circular Reasoning (Vacuity)
Definition
occurs if and only if one of the premises used directly or indirectly supports a conclusion equivalent to itself; occurs by:
1. restating the conclusion in different words
2. suppressing premises that restate the conclusion
3. placing the conclusion at the end and restating it as a premise later

*example: saying that abortion is immoral as support for an argument against the immorality of abortion
Term
Begging the Question (Vacuity)
Definition
similar to circularity; an argument begs the question if and only if:
1. it depends on a premise supported by nothing other than the conclusion
2. there is a need for an independent reason
Term
Self-Sealers (Vacuity)
Definition
positions set up in a way that nothing can possibly refute it

*example: clairvoyant claims when their predictions are correct they can see into the future and when they are incorrect, bad vibrations interfered
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