reactant concentrations

temperature

meduum

catalysts

one where no heat exchange occurs; temperature of material can change

(isothermal when temperature of system remains constant)

DG = 

 DG°= 

DG° + RT ln Q

-RT ln Keq

Gases

0°C, 1 atm, 22.4L

enthalpy, entropy, Gibbs, and voltage

25°C

Total P = sum of partial pressures

P_A=P_TX_A

X_A=n_A/n_T

crystalline solids

(vs. amorphous)

ordered structure; specific 3D arrangement 

Ionic: aggregates of +/- ions; no discrete molecules

Metallic: metal atoms packed together closely

physical properties derived soley from the number or particles present

Freezing-point depression (DT_f =K_fm <--molality)

Boiling-point elevation (DT_b =K_bm)

Osmotic Pressure (P = MRT)

Vapor-Pressure Lowering (Raoult's Law...P_A=X_AP°_A) (DP =P°_A-P_A=X_BP°_A)

-ous vs -ic

-ide

-ite vs -ate

hypo- and per-

bi-

less vs greater charge

monatomic anion

less and more oxyanions

even less and even more anions

one hydrogen (vs dihydrogen)

=[A]^m[B]ⁿ

I.P. with respect to initial concentrations (not eq.)

K_sp represents equilibrium or saturated sol. 

b^- emitts electron: neutron decays into proton and e^-

b⁺ emitts positron: proton splits into a positron and neutron

rate at which nuclei decay proportional to number that remain --> Dn/Dt = -ln

n = n₀e^-lt

l=ln 2/T_1/2=0.693/T_1/2

provide stable anion on its own, weak bases;

have strong conjugate acids

Good: Halides (except F), water, TSO^-

Moderate: NH₃

Poor: HO^-, RO^-

Extremely poor: NH₂^-, H^-, R^-

With dissociable (acidic) H⁺ (water, alcohol, formic acid, ammonia)

Stabilize nucleophile

Favor SN1 

lack acidic hydrogen, no H bonding

lack H-O or H-N bonds

(ethers, ketones, halogenated hydrocarbonds)

favor S_n2 reactions

Less EN--> hold electrons less tight

More linear/smaller --> less sterically hindered

Polarizability (increases down table)

Very good: HS^-, I^-, RS^-

Good: Br^-, HO^-, RO^-, CN^-

Moderate: NH₃, Cl^-, F^-, RCO₂^-

Weak: H₂O, ROH

Very weak: RCO₂H

More stable conjugate base = stronger acid

"-" prefer to rest on: 1) larger atom to spread charge

2) EN atoms--> ion stability

Resonance stabilization

Neighboring EN groups pull some electron density alleviating atom

Strong acids = strong electrolytes (HCL, HBr, HI, HClO₄, HNO₃, H₂SO₄^-)

increase rate by stabilizing cationic intermediate by donating electrons to ring system

toluene, phenol, aniline (NH₂)

decrease reaction rate by withdrawing electron density from ortho and para positions leaving meta positions as least unreactive

nitrobenzene, benzaldehyde, ketones, esters, carboxylic acids, sulfo, cyano 

groups w/ unshared pairs of electrons (donate to pi system)

Activators: NH₂, OH, OR; weak ones: R

Halogens (deactivators): EN so draw electron density, but have unshared pair of electrons

non-halogen groups with EN atoms

Deactivating groups: NO₂, NR₃⁺, CX₃ (Trihalides); CN₂, SO₃H, CO₂H, COOR, aldehydes, ketones