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Patho exam revision
pathophysiology
80
Physiology
Undergraduate 2
02/10/2017

Additional Physiology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
Compare and contrast beinign
and malignant tumours
Definition
Benign: well differentiated cells, slow growth, encapsulated, usually one tumour
Malignant: very poorly differentiated cells, rapid growth, not encapsulated, invasive and radiating growth.
Term
Define a thromous
Definition
Thrombus: an obstruction attached to the inside wall of an artery/vein. (stuck clot)
Term
Define an embolus
Definition
Embolus: forein object which circulates in the bloodstream until it becomes lodged in a vessel. (a floating clot)
Term
Define a thromoemoblus
Definition
Thromboembolus: a thrombus that has detatched from the vessel wall which then becomes and embolus
Term
How can a thromoembolus effect circulation?
Definition
It blocks blood flow, causing ischaemia and hypoxia.
Term
Explain the importance of venous return in ensuring adequate oxygen is delived to the tissue.
Definition
Adequate arterial flow requires removal of deoxygenated blood as veins are responsible for the removal of deoxygenated blood
Term
Define true and false aneurysms and provide examples.
Definition

True aneurysms: stretching of all three layers of the arterial wall (innermost: tunica intima, middle: tunica meida, outermost: tunica externa)
Examples include; circumferential aneurysm and saccular aneurysm

False aneurysms: do not involve the stretching of all three layers of the aterial wall.

Examples include;dissecting aneurysm and pseudoaneurysm

Term
Discuss the causes and consequences of deep vein thrombosis (DVT).
Definition
DVT is formed by thrombi formation within the deep veins which is usually formed from immobility.
Term
Describe the differnce between primary and secondary hypertension
Definition
Primary: no known cause
Secondary: cause is known e.g kidney disease
Term
Explain why hypertension is considered dangerous
Definition
Incresed risk of heart failureas the heart is under more pressure and hypertension increases the afterload which eventually casue the heart to undergo hypertrophy
Term
What is the definition of ischaemic heart disease?
Definition
Impaired funciton/damage to the cardic muscle by reduction of blood supply
Term
Define angina.
Definition
Pain associated with ischaemia
Term
Compare and contrast L) and R) heart failure
Definition
Compare: both cause heart failure and insuffient blood supply
L): causes pulmonary odema
R): causes accummulation of fluid in the vena carva and other veins leading to the heart from the body
Term
How can artheroscerclerosis impact on the heart?
Definition
Slow blood flow and increase afterload and increase peripheral resistance
Term
Define pericarditis.
Definition

Pericarditis: inflammation of the pericardium

-caused by viruses

or bacterial infections

Term
What is a myocardial infarction and what are the consequences?
Definition
Death of myocardial cells which leads to heart failure
Term
Define hypercapnia
Definition
High CO2
Term
Define hypoxaemia and hypoxia
Definition
Hypoxaemia: low O2 in blood
Hypoxia: low O2 in body tisses
Term
Explain common symptoms of respiratory disease
Definition
Dysphea, coughing, haemopypis, clubbing of digits
Term
Describe obstructive pulmonary disorders
Definition

Emphysema: break down/scarring of the walls of the alveoli which interferes with sufficient gas exchange

Asthma: obstruction of airflow due to widespread reversible narrowing of the airways

Bronchitis: inflammation of the inner lining of the bronchi

Term
What is one common complication of obstructive lung disease?
Definition
Pulmonary hypertension: high BP in pulmonary artery due to capilleries of alveoli in diseased lung become scarred. Increased blood flow resistance through the lung so BP and afterload increase in the pulmonary artery.  RV (right ventricle) must overcome afterload to pump blood through the lungs so it undergoes hypertrophy, outgrows coronary blood supply and eventually fails (right heart failure)

(Any of what is said above counts)
Term
Define and describe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)
Definition
Life threatening general inflammation ofh te lungs. Occurs following damage to the lung from severe infection, near drowing, smoke, noxious gases, inhalation of radiation therapy.  One or more of these stimulates a massive inflammation response within the lungs, causing fluid (+WBC) to leak into the alveoli. Lead to impairment of gas exchange up to 72hrs later, progress sto the irreversible scarring of the lung.  There are three stages; inflammorty stage, proliferative phase and fibrotic phase.
Term
Describe the inflammatory stage of ARDS
Definition

occurs within 72hours after initial insult to the lung.

widespread inflammation of alveoli, leakage of fluid from alveolar capillaries into the alveoli. Severely reduces gas exchange. WBC move into the alvoli. Symptoms of hypercapnia arise.

Term
Describe the proliferative phase in ARDS
Definition
occurs 4-21 days after initial insult.
inflammation greatly reduced, fluid-filled alveoli are replaced by granular tissue which is an example of the repair process.
Term
Describe the fibrotic phase of ARDS
Definition

occurs 14-21 days after inital insult.

'repair' process continues. Tissue of the lung becomes irreversibly scarred so the lung becomes inspired air. 
by this stage the person has acute respiratory failure

Term
Compare and contrast open and spontaneous pneumothorax
Definition
Open: opening in the chest wall prevents presure changes in the thoraic cavity occuring, lung remains collapsed 

Spontaneous: opening spontaneously develops between the airway and thoracic cavity.  Any movement of hte chest wall or diaphragm does not result in lung exansion as the air is able to pass directly from the airway into the thoracic cavity.
Term
Describe three (3) conditions caused by postoperative respiratory damage
Definition
1) Absorption atelectasis: alveoli may be blocked with mucus leading to alveoli collapsing.
2) Aspiration: entry of fluid/solid particles inot hte lung. Large particles may block major airways and fluid causes inflammation.  Bacterial pneumonia may also occur.
3) Pneumothorax: presence of air or gas in the thorax.
Term
Describe 2 ways our body gains and loses salts
Definition

Gain: enters the body in food and water

Losses: sweat, urine and faeces

Term
Define hyperkalemia and explain the concequences
Definition

High potassium levels in blood and extracellular fluid.

Exess K+will be transported inot the nerve cells making them more positive. Resting potential will increase and become closer to the theshold. 

This can grossly increase heart rate and cause uncontrolled muscular acitivity, eventually leading to paralysis.

Term
Define hypokalemia and explain the concequences
Definition

Low potassium levels in blood and intracellular fluid.

This will reduce the amount in nerve cells.  Reduction in the number of positively chargedions inside the cell recduces the resting potential.

This may lead to paralysis and a slow irregular heart beat or even cardiac arrest.

Term
Why is washout so important?
Definition
To decrease the risk of getting bacterial infections
Term
What are common causes of obstruction of the urinary tract?
Definition

-Infection and inflammation to the kidneys.  Reduced urine flow may be due to kidney stones, hypertrophy ofthe prostate in males, neoplasms of the urethra or ureters and decreased nerve impulses to the bladder.

-Increased pressure upon the kidneys

Term
Define renal insufficency
Definition
Renal function has declined to 25% of normal
Term
Define renal failure
Definition
occurs when there is less than 10% of renal function remaining
Term
Define open trauma
Definition
where the damage has exposed the brain to the external environment (e.g. gunshot wound)
Term
Define closed trauma
Definition
The brain is not exposed (e.g. jarring of the brain when a person falls and hits their head)
Term
What are the consequences of traumatic head injuries?
Definition

-May cause severe brain damage which can result in bleeding btween the dura mater and the skull (extradural) or the dura mater and the brain (subdural) or within the cerebrum (intracerebral).

-Cerebral haemorrhage can interfere with functioning of the brain due to a reduction in blood supply.

-No haemorrhage, trauma such as shaking or jarring can cause the tissues of the brain to become inflammed and take up fluid; resulting in cerebral odema.

Term
Define meningitis/encephalitis
Definition
Inflammation of the meninges and the brain respectively. Both can cause life threatening damage to the brain tissue as they both cause cerebral odema.  Infections are also frequent in both conditions.
Term
Define cerebral odema
Definition
Swelling of the cells of the brain. This increases the pressure within the cranial cavity and can damage the nervous tissue.  Cells of the brain also swell in response to infection or mechenical damage.
Term
Define 'white stroke'
Definition
Both thrombotic and embolic strokes block arteries and arteriols which cause a reduction in blood supply to the brain which in turn makes the person lose colour, looking pale.
Term
Define 'red stroke'
Definition
Haemorrhagic strokes bleed into the brain
Term
Compare and contrast Guillain-Barre syndrome and multiple sclerosis
Definition
Guillain-Barre syndrome: acute autoimmune condition which causes the distruction of the myelin around the peripheral nerves. Loss of myelin interferes with transmission of messages and this can cause acute motor paralysis (including the inability to breathe)

Multiple sclerosis: chronic and progressive autoimmune condition which causes loss of myelin surrounding nerves within the central nervous system.  Loss of myelin interferes with transmission via sensory and motor nerves which is why symptoms include burning or tingling sensations of the skin, muscle weakness and paralysis.
Term
Explain why the condition of blood in the faeces may suggest the site of the bleeding
Definition
Haemotochezia (fresh blood) indicates that there may be a bleed in the lower part of the digestive tract as it has not been digested but if a person has a fast rate of passage the fresh blood may have originated anywhere within the digestive tract; however, melena (dark, digested blood) suggests that the bleed may be in the upper part of the digestive tract as the digestive enzymses have tried to break it down.
Term
Compare 'sliding' and 'rolling' hiatal hernia
Definition

Sliding: this is where the stomach immediately inferior to the oesophagus simply protudes. (This is very common)

Rolling: involves protusion of another part ofhte stomach through the diaphragm.

Term
Name and describe two (2) disorders of the small intestine
Definition

1) Crohn disease- inflammation of any part of the gastroinestinal tract but most common site is the small intestine.  The inflammation may lead to scarring and obstruction.  Symptoms may be classified as 'irritable bowel'.  It has been found that recessive gene is responsible for this disease.

 

2) Intestinal obstruction- caused by torsion (twisting) of the intestine, growth of tumours, scarring or foreign bodies that have been swallowed. Symptoms include intermittent pain, followed by vomiting.

Term
Name and describe two (2) disorders of the large intestine
Definition

1) Diverticulosis- formation of blind sacs in the large intestine. Most of which occur in the sigmoid colon.  Hypertrophy of the intestinal wall and an increase in pressure can result in the contents of the large intestine herniating through the wall to form these blind pockets.

 

2) Appendicitis- a naturally occuring blind pocket within the appendix which then becomes infected and inflammed. 

Term
Define hepatitis and what are the consequences?
Definition
Inflammatory disorders of the liver caused by viruses that replicate themselves within the liver cells.  Results in the remaining liver cells having reduced function so that billirubin levels build up in the bloodstream.  Following inflammation, cells and ductwork may be replaced by scar tissue.
Term
What is the common cause of dysfunction of the endocrine system?
Definition
Hypersecreation or hyposecreation of hormones
Term
Define hyothyroidism
Definition
Low amounts of they thyroid hormone.
Term
Causes and symptoms of hypothyroidism
Definition
  • Can be present from birth or may occur in adulthood.  As this hormone is responsible for the development of the brain, hypothyroidism can result in mental retardation. 

Causes:- low metabolic rate which means the cells will not be breaking down glucose quickly resulting the supply of ATP to be limited.  

            -lack of iodine, which is necessary for thyroid hormone production.
Symptoms: fatigue, slow pulse, cold intolerance and weight gain. 

Term
Define hyperthyroidism
Definition
Too much thyroid hormone which results in a hypermetabolic state.
Term
Causes and symptoms of hyperthyroidism
Definition

Cause: tumour ofthe thyroid that secretes large amounts of thyroxine.

Symptoms: high metabolic rate, intolerant to heat, rapid pulse and lose weight.

Term
Define Addison's disease
Definition
Destruction of the adrenal cortex, resulting in hyposecreation of cortisol and aldosterone.  Adrenal cells are often destroyed by the immune system.
Term
Define Cushing's syndrome
Definition
Excess of cortisol.  Usuall caused by a tumour thats within the adrenal cortex as it secretes excess cortisol.
Term
Define a complete bone fracture
Definition
the bone is broken all the way through
Term
Define an incomplete bone fracture
Definition
the bone is damaged but still in one piece
Term
Define dislocation/luxation and subluxation
Definition

Dislocation/luxation: where there is an abnormal and complete separation of the bones within a joint.
 

Subluxation: partial dislocation, articulating surfaces of the joint are only partially separated.

Both cause damage to the tendons, ligaments and muscles surrounding the affected joint. 

Term
Define tendonitis and list two (2) common causes
Definition
Inflammation of the tendons, this inflammation is accompanied by swelling, pain and restricted movement.

Causes: overuse injuries or acute trauma such as a fall.
Term
Define osteoarthritis
Definition
softening and loss of the articular cartilage, causing cartilaginous surfaces to become rough and pitted.  This is usually caused by 'wear and tear'. Eventually the cartilage completely degenerate which results in exposure and erosion of the underlying bone.  New bone 'spurs' may form causing stiffness, pain and reduced movement.
Term
Define rheumatoid arthritis
Definition
This is an inflammatory disorder casued by the dysfunction of the immune system.
A tissue called 'pannus' grows out from the synovial membrane and erodes teh cartilage and bone, eventually the pannus tissue may bridge the gap between the bones which will grossly reduce mobility.
Term
Name the 5 layers of the epidermis
Definition
Stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum and stratum corneum
Term
Name 3 neoplasms of the skin
Definition

1) Basal cell carcinoma- generally a benign tumour, usually only occurs on sun exposed surfaces.

2) Squamous cell carcinoma- malignant tumour, often metastasises to nearby lymph nodes. this is commonly found on sun exposed surfaces.

3) Malignant melanoma - malignant tumour on the first layer of skin, stratum basale. metastasises rapidly.

Term
What are the complications associated with burns?
Definition
Increased risk of infection, temperature regulation, fluid loss, shock and electrolyte imbalances.
Term
What are the differences between first, second and third degree burns?
Definition

First degree: only affect part or all of the epidermis and heal within a few days and do not ususally scar

Second degree: affect all of the epidermis and part or all of the dermis and they take longer to heal depending on the thickness ofthe dermis destroyed.  If there is a large burnt area a skin graft will be required

Third degree: affects all of the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. this depth of burn will not usually heal over resulting in requiring a skin graft.

Term
Define ectopic pregnancy
Definition
The implantation of a fertilised ovm outside the uterus. Occurs in the oviduct.  The oviduct is not elastic so it cannot expand which cannot accommodate for the growing foetus and may rupture.
Term
Define primary and secondary amenorrhea
Definition

Primary:the failure to start menstruating by the age of 15 ususally caused by hyposecretion of ovarian or pituritary hormones.

Secondary: absence of menses for the duration of threee or more succesive menstrual cycles in a person who had normal cycles.  May be caused by hormonal dysfunction, infeciton, reduced food intake or excessive physical activity.

Term
Define dysmenorrhea
Definition
painful menstrual cramps
Term
Define endometriosis
Definition
Occurrence of functioning uterine tissue outside the uterus.
Term
Describe the development and progression of cervical cancer.
Definition

Pre-cancerous cells are called cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) occurs where some of the normal cells of the cervix are replaced by atypical dysplastic cells.

They are graded as:

CIN1- Mild dysplasia

CIN2- Moderate dysplasia

CIN3- Severe dysplasia

 

The development of dysplasia is usually quite slow during CIN1-3 but after that he cancer can undergo rapid metastasis.

Term
Describe the detection and treatment of cervical cancer
Definition

Diagnosis is done by a Papanicolaou (Pap) smear. The cervix naturally sheds cells and a smear sample of these is examined for signs of dysplasia.

 

Treatment: Cases detected early (within CIN1-3) can have 100% cure rate by surgical excision or laser destruction/radiation of the abnormal cells.

Term
Define cryptorchidism
Definition
Failure of a testies or testes to decend fro mthe abdominal cavity to the scrotum.
Term
Define orchitis
Definition
Inflammation of the testis. Common cause is the mumps virus.
Term
Define testicular torsion (twisted testis)
Definition
Occurs when the testis rotates, twisting off the bood flow in the testicular artery and veins.  This greatly reduces and even stops blood flow to the testis. If left untreated the testis will die and have to be removed.
Term
Explain why the enlargement of the prostate can interfere with the voiding of urine
Definition
The prostate gland is placed to constrict the urethra and therefore interfere with the elimination of urine.  However if the prostate glad is enlarged it will make it almost impossible for the person to pass urine as its already constricting the flow of urine which in turn will have a negative impact on the kidneys as the body is still getting rid of the waste products and the kidneys are still filtering the urine however if urine cannot be voided this will back up and put excess pressure on the bladder and the kidneys.
Term
Define myopia
Definition
short sightedness
Term
Define hyperopia
Definition
long sightedness
Term
Define presbyopia
Definition
Impossible to focus on close objects (e.g. reading)
Term
Define glaucoma
Definition
Is when the pressure inside the eye is greater than 21mm Hg.  Increased pressure compresses arteriols and capillaries and therefore reduces the delivery of oxygenated blood to the eye.  It can also compress the retina and optic nerve resulting in progression of vision loss.
Term
Compare and contrast open and narrow angle glaucoma
Definition

Narrow angle: caused by the anterior chaber being so narrow taht outflow of aqueous humour is impeded.

Open angle: occurs through the anterior chamber is of normal depth.  The outflow of aqueous humour is prevented by a blockage of Schlemm's canal

Term
Name two (2) disorders of the semicircular canals
Definition

1) the effects of inflammation: may be caused by certain medicatons or allergies

2) Motion sickness: constant stimulation of the cells within the canals due to repeated rocking movements.

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