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Path Pharm Exam 1
Notes from Path Pharm for exam 1
408
Pathology
Graduate
09/19/2011

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Term
What is disease?
Definition
a change in a cell's structure or function
Term
What is pathology?
Definition
study of disease, its cause and development
Term
What is the path of pathology?
Definition
cause/etiology - pathogenesis (cell change - body's response) - signs/symptoms - outcome
Term
What is etiology?
Definition
cause of disease
Term
What is pathogenesis?
Definition
development of disease
Term
What are the 2 parts of pathogenesis?
Definition
cell change, body's response
Term
What is the pathology of a torn ligament?
Definition
trauma - cells die - acute inflammation/repair - pain, red, swelling - resolve
Term
What is the pathology of acne?
Definition
bacteria - cells die - acute inflammation/repair - pain, red, swelling - resolve
Term
How many etiologies are there?
Definition
hundreds of thousands
Term
How many pathogenic reponses are there?
Definition
about 20
Term
How many diseases are there?
Definition
hundreds of thousands
Term
List some etiologies and their meanings
Definition
physical mechanisms, aging, idiopathic, nutritional factors, genetic factors, immunologic reactions, infectious agents, chemical agents, hypoxia, ischemia
Term
List body responses to non-lethal cell injury and stress
Definition
cell adaptation, edema, neoplasia, repair, acute inflammation, chronic inflammation, thrombosis, hemorrhage
Term
List and describe common non-lethal cellular responses to injury and stress
Definition
atrophy (reduction in cell size due to loss of intracellular organelles from decreased activity = physiologic or denervation = pathogenic), hypertrophy (increase in cell size), hyperplasia (increase in number of cells), metaplasia (change from one mature cell type to another)
Term
What is a body response to a lethal cell injury?
Definition
necrosis = cell death
Term
What 4 cell systmes are especially vulnerable to injury?
Definition
genetic material/nucleus, cell membrane for permeability, mitochondria for ATP, protein makers like golgi and rough endoplasmic reticulum
Term
What are the common biochemical mechanisms of cell injury?
Definition
loss of atp: cells can't do what they need to do (ex. Na pump is broken and na comes in with water, causing cell to swell)
Term
How do different cell types respond to pathogenesis?
Definition
metabolically active cells like neurons and heart cells are damaged first bc they need lots of atp
Term
When is cell injury irreversible?
Definition
when it is non lethal
Term
What are the 2 types of cell death?
Definition
necrosis, apoptosis
Term
What is necrosis?
Definition
cell death caused by exogenous source; visible
Term
What are the types of necrosis?
Definition
coagulative, liquifactive, caseous, fat
Term
What is coagulative necrosis?
Definition
nucleus condenses (pyknosis), karyhorrexis, occurs from hypoxia, cell coagulates
Term
What is liquifactive necrosis?
Definition
occurs when lytic enzymes destroy forming pus in acute finflammation
Term
What is caseous necrosis?
Definition
occurs in TB
Term
What is pyknosis?
Definition
nucleus condenses and becomes darker
Term
What is karyorrhexis?
Definition
cell membrane splits cell into bite sized pieces
Term
what is apoptosis?
Definition
cell suicide
Term
What are the 4 types of cell adaptations to etiologies?
Definition
atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia
Term
What are the types of body responses to non-lethal cell stress?
Definition
cell adaptations, acute inflammation, chronic inflammation, repair, edema, hemorrhage, thrombosis, neoplasia, necrosis
Term
What is the definition of inflammation?
Definition
automatic, steroptyed responses of living tissue to all forms of injury. Localized, protective response of body to foreign invasion and to cellular injury; designed to destory and and remove both the injurious agent and the injured tissue. Activates the subsequent healing and repair
Term
What is the difference between acute and chronic inflammation
Definition
acute = abrupt onset and short duration; chronic = slow onset and longer duration
Term
How is inflammation beneficial?
Definition
by preventing or limiting disease
Term
How is inflammation harmful?
Definition
can cause cell injury or disease
Term
What is the suffix for inflammatory diseases?
Definition
it is
Term
What are the 4 types of inflammatory cells?
Definition
neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes, and mast cells
Term
Describe neutrophils
Definition
chunked, segmented, lobed nucleus
Term
describe macrophages
Definition
phagocytic; eats stuff
Term
describe lymphocytes
Definition
small with big, dark nucleus
Term
what are the major characteristics of acute inflammation?
Definition
early response to injury/invasion, rapid onset (minutes to hours), resolves quickly (hours to days)
Term
what cells are involved in acute inflammation?
Definition
neutrophils, macrophages
Term
what etiologies lead to acute inflammation?
Definition
infections, physical, necrosis, immune
Term
what are the signs/symptoms of acute inflammation
Definition
redness, pain, swelling, heat
Term
what are the outcomes of acute inflammation?
Definition
resolve to normal, abscess, chronic inflammation, repair
Term
what are the steps of pathogenesis of acute inflammation?
Definition
injury occurs, macrophage discovers injury and sends out chemical mediators, chemical mediators cause vasodilation and increase in blood flow, chemical mediators increase blood vessel permeability to release water from blood vessel, chemical mediators recruit neutrophils, chemical mediators recruit more macrophages, the etiology is destroyed by phagocytosis (the release of lytic enzymes)
Term
which mediators are released by macrophages to increase vasodilation?
Definition
histamine, prostaglandins
Term
what signs/symptoms are caused by the vasodilation of blood vessels?
Definition
redness, heat
Term
what mediator is released by macrophage to increase blood vessel permeability?
Definition
histamine, leukotrienes
Term
what signs/symptoms are caused by the increase in permeability of blood vessels?
Definition
plasma fluid transudate and edema (swelling, pain)
Term
what mediator is released by macrophages to recruit neutrophils?
Definition
leukotrienes
Term
how do neutrophils arrive at the area of injury?
Definition
migration, chemotaxis
Term
what is the result of neutrophils in an area of injury?
Definition
purulent exudate = pus
Term
what mediators cause phagocytosis?
Definition
reactive oxygen species
Term
where are chemical mediators synthesized?
Definition
a variety of cells such as leukocytes, blood vessels, liver, etc.
Term
when mediators act locally, what are the signs and symptoms?
Definition
reness, pain, heat, swelling
Term
when mediators act systemically on the brain, what are the signs and symptoms?
Definition
fever, lethargy, loss of appetite
Term
Mediator
Definition
Function
Term
histamine
Definition
vasodilation, increased permeability
Term
bradykinin
Definition
pain
Term
cyclooxygenase pathway
Definition
many molecules, many roles
Term
prostaglandins
Definition
pain, fever, vasodilation
Term
leukotrienes
Definition
increased permeability, chemotaxis
Term
interleukin 1
Definition
fever, lethargy, loss of appetite
Term
tumor necrosis factor
Definition
fever, lethargy, loss of appetite
Term
reactive oxygen species
Definition
kill microbes, damage neighborhood
Term
what are NSAIDS?
Definition
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
Term
what are the 4 effects of NSAIDS?
Definition
anti-inflammatory, anti pyretic (fever reducers), analgesic, anti-coaculation
Term
What are some NCSAIDS that are nonselective COX inhibitors?
Definition
aspirin, iburofen, indomethacin, naproxen
Term
what are some NSAIDS that are selective COX2 inhibitors?
Definition
celebrex, bextra, vioxx
Term
what are the 2 normal metabolic pathways for prostaglandin synthesis?
Definition
cyclooxygenase 1 for synthesis of beneficial prostaglandins and cyclooxygenase 2 for synthesis of inflammatory prostaglandins
Term
what is the mechanism of action of NSAIDS?
Definition
inhibit production of prostaglandins by inhibiting cycoloxygenase
Term
what do nonselective inhbitors inhibit?
Definition
both cyclooxygenase 1 and 2, so both beneficial and inflammatory prostaglandins
Term
what do selective inhibitors inhibit?
Definition
only cyclooxygenase 2 so only inflammatory prostaglandins
Term
what are the adverse effects of nonselective inhibitors?
Definition
stomac lining damage, slows bone healing
Term
what are the adverse effects of selective inhibitors?
Definition
promotes thrombosis (clotting)
Term
what is an example of a health cell that makes beneficial prostaglandin?
Definition
stomach lining
Term
what is neutrophilia
Definition
lots of neutrophils
Term
how is neutrophilia determined
Definition
complete blood count that shows increase of neutrophils in blood
Term
what is an abscess
Definition
colleciton of neutrophils that the body walls off and leaves alone
Term
the body is under constant threat of what?
Definition
invasion by foreign materials/nonself/antigen
Term
what is the 1st line of defense?
Definition
antigen-non-specific, innate physical barrier (thick skin, low pH, mucous)
Term
what is the 2nd line of defense?
Definition
antigen-non-specific, innate acute inflammation
Term
what is the 3rd line of defense?
Definition
antigen specific immune response like chronic inflammation
Term
What are some of the body's responses to an etiology?
Definition
cell adaptations, acute inflammation, chronic inflammation, repair, edema, hemorrhage, thrombosis, neoplasia, necrosis
Term
what is inflammation
Definition
automatic, steroptyped responses of living tissue to all forms of injury. Localized, protective response of body to foreign invasion and to cellular injury; designed to destroy and remove both the injurious agent and the injured tisue. Activates subsequent healing and repair.
Term
Acute inflammation is the body's which line of defense?
Definition
2nd
Term
Chronic inflammation is the body's what line of defense?
Definition
3rd
Term
how is inflammation beneficial?
Definition
prevents/limits disease
Term
how is inflammation harmful?
Definition
can cause cell injury/disease
Term
suffix of inflammatory diseases
Definition
it is
Term
what are inflammatory cells?
Definition
white blood cells/leukocytes = neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes, mast cells
Term
characteristics of chronic inflammation
Definition
slow, later onset (takes days, like TB test)
Term
what cells are inolved in chronic inflammation?
Definition
macrophages, lymphocytes
Term
characteristics of lymphocytes
Definition
mononuclear, large nucleus
Term
when does chronic inflammation occur?
Definition
after acute inflammation or directly after an etiology
Term
what etiologies cause the body to respond with chronic inflammation?
Definition
agent is in a cell: infection (virus)
Term
what are signs/symptoms of chronic inflammation?
Definition
pain, fever, sleepiness, lack of appetite, muscle pain, redness, others
Term
what is myalgia?
Definition
muscle pain
Term
what are the possible outcomes of chronic inflammation
Definition
resolve, continue, repair
Term
what are the events of pathogenesis of chronic inflammation?
Definition
injury occurs
Term
what is a granuloma
Definition
accumulation of macrophages
Term
what etiologies lead to granulomas?
Definition
inedible etiologies like sutures, talk, silicon; TB; some fungi; sarcoidosis
Term
what are cytokines?
Definition
mediators of chronic inflammation
Term
MEDIATOR
Definition
FUNCTION
Term
interferon
Definition
recruits macrophages
Term
interleukin 1
Definition
fever, lethargy, loss of appetite; induce prostaglandin synthesis
Term
tumor necrosis factor
Definition
fever, lethargy, loss of appetite; induce prostaglandin synthesis
Term
cyclooxygenase pathway
Definition
many molecules, many roles
Term
prostaglandins
Definition
pain, fever, vasodilation
Term
leukotrienes
Definition
increase permeability, chemotaxis
Term
complement proteins
Definition
many roles
Term
reactive oxygen species
Definition
kill microbes, damage neighborhood
Term
what does anti-inflammatory pharmacology try to do?
Definition
inhibit mediators
Term
what are glucocorticoids?
Definition
a family of homrones produced naturally in the adrenal gland
Term
what is the primary family member of glucocorticoids?
Definition
cortisol = hydrocortisone = prednisone
Term
what are natural levels of glucocorticoids like?
Definition
vary throughout day, peak at 8am, trough at midnight; levels increase above baseline with any type of stress
Term
what do medicinal glucocorticoids mimic?
Definition
cortisol
Term
what is the anti-inflammatory mechanism of action of hormones and drugs?
Definition
enters cell and turns genes on or off
Term
what is the effect of anti-inflammatory drugs?
Definition
suppress acute and chronic inflammation and consequently suppress the immune system
Term
examples of medical uses of glucocortoids
Definition
halt allergic, autoimmune, osteoarthritis ctiondiaseses and prevent transplant re
Term
do anti-inflammatory drugs cure diseases or treat symptoms?
Definition
treat symptoms
Term
adverse effects of glucocortocoids
Definition
adrenal gland stops producing cortisol (must taper off drug to return to normal cortisol production)
Term
why does cushing syndrome occur?
Definition
too much cortisol, causes catabolic effects on muscle, tendon, ligaments, bone, skin
Term
how does a complete blood count indicate chronic inflammatoin
Definition
increased lymphocytes in blood (lymphocytosis) from increased lymphocyte recruitment
Term
examples of chronic inflammatory diseases
Definition
infections
Term
good use of chronic inflammation
Definition
kills cancer cells
Term
negative use of chronic inflammation
Definition
results in transplant rejection
Term
what does AIDS infect?
Definition
macrophages, lymphocytes
Term
why doesn't AIDS cause a chronic inflammatory response?
Definition
macrophages and lymphocytes are not available to respond
Term
what does AIDS do?
Definition
make people more sucscepitble to virus infections, cancer, fungi
Term
define pharmacology
Definition
the study of drugs, their mechanism of action, absorption, distribution, metabolism, effectiveness and compare to effectiveness of other dugs, toxicology, side effects, economics
Term
what are the goals of drug therapy?
Definition
relief of symptoms, quality of life, prevent symptoms of disease, reverse or delay pathophysiological effects, decrease side effects, decrease cost
Term
describe relief of symptoms as goal of drug therapy
Definition
get rid of headache, osteoarthritis pain, anxiety
Term
describe quality of life as goal of drug therapy
Definition
sleeping pilss, rest from anxiety, analgesics
Term
how does drug therapy prevent symptoms of disease
Definition
decrease blood pressure, heart disease, cholesterol, insulin
Term
how does drug therapy reverse or delay pathophysiological effects
Definition
cholesterol lowering meds reduce atherosclerosis which over time reduces riskof heart atack
Term
what are the steps of using drug therapy to accomplish PT consult
Definition
1. swallow pill; 2. med disintegrates in GI tract and dissolves with help of GI acid; 3. med is absorbed from small intestine to capillaries of GI tract; 4. everything that leaves GI tract goes next to liver where it is broken down; 5. med goes into general circulation; 6. goes to site ofinterest; 7. finds receptor site of action; 8. increase range of motion in PT consult
Term
in taking a pill orally, which part goes slowly and which part goes quickly?
Definition
takes a longer time to get into circulation (disintegration, absorption, breakdown in liver); goes quickly to receptor site after getting into circulation
Term
describe site of action
Definition
fits with drug like lock and key, in order for a drug to work it has to find its relative site of action
Term
what is a median effective dose
Definition
the does where 50% of people have not yet felt effects of drug but 50% have
Term
what is the median toxic dose
Definition
dose where 50% of people have not felt drug's toxicity but 50% have
Term
what is the therapeutic index?
Definition
median toxic dose/median effective dose
Term
do we want therapeutic index to be large or small?
Definition
large
Term
which has higher therapeutic index, OTC or RX drugs?
Definition
OTC
Term
agonist
Definition
causes measurable effect; provokes cellular/enzymatic change
Term
antagonist
Definition
can block unintended pharmacological effect of agonist
Term
why do we have to repeat doses?
Definition
drugs bind to receptors transiently and then float away
Term
where are H2 receptors?
Definition
on stomach
Term
describe how prilosec works
Definition
blocks/antagonizes receptor without causing cellular change; diminishes effect on stomach lining by NSAIDS
Term
example of H1 antagonist
Definition
antihistamines, which lock H1 receptors to reduce inflammation
Term
phase 1 studies
Definition
small population (less than 50), identify rational doses, usually done in normal volunteers in order to understand toxicology
Term
phase 2 drugs
Definition
disease is present in volunteers, 50-200 people
Term
phase 3 studies
Definition
thousands of people, finally get drug approved after 2 randomized clinical trials, severe side effects emerge
Term
what factors can make a difference in individual responses to drugs? (ie why would one person achieve full range of motion with 100mg ibuprofen while another achieves full range of motion at 400mg?)
Definition
1. drug interaction: could be taking a 2nd drug that antagonizes ibuprofen (can overcome this by increasing dose of ibuprofen), 2. First Pass: liver may metabolize more ibuprofen because there are more active sites/enzymes in liver cells, 3. there may be oral absorption differences in the two patients (take the drug by iv to reduce this effect), 4. characteristics such as age, volume, activity level
Term
in a blood/serum concentration vs. time after does graph, what do we call the increase in concentration side of the curve?
Definition
absorption phase
Term
in the graph, what do we call the decrease in blood concentration?
Definition
elimination phase
Term
what do we call the time between absoprtion phase and elimination phase?
Definition
distribution phase
Term
what is done to turn a blood concentration specimen into serum fluid?
Definition
clot red blood cells
Term
what do we call the highest concentration on the serum conc vs. time after does graph?
Definition
Cmax
Term
which will be higher, Cmax for IV drugs or Cmax for oral drugs?
Definition
IV
Term
what other changes do we see in a conc vs. time graph for IV instead of PO?
Definition
With IV, absorption phase is faster and curve goes higher. Elimination phase looks the same whether drug is given PO or IV
Term
what is the time at which Cmax happens?
Definition
Tmax
Term
how is Tmax different for IV from PO?
Definition
Tmax is faster for IV than for PO
Term
why is Cmax for PO lower than Cmax for IV
Definition
loss of drug to liver with PO (first pass.) all oral drugs pass through liver first, but only some IV drugs pass through liver
Term
comparing IV to PO concentration shows us what?
Definition
measurement of absorption/bioavailability for PO
Term
how do we calculate bioavailability for a drug PO?
Definition
assume bioavailability for IV drug si 100% bc it is injected into bloodstream. Bioavailability = (area under curve for PO)/(area under curve for IV)
Term
what does a PO bioavailability of 10-20% mean?
Definition
this bioavailability is too low and drug will not be given PO
Term
what kind of information can we get from the measurement of the rate of elimination?
Definition
drug's half life
Term
what is a drug's half life?
Definition
the time it takes the drug concentration to decrease by half
Term
does a drug have the same half life in all people?
Definition
no, different people have different half lives for the same drug
Term
what happens if we give a 2nd dose to someone whose serum concentration has not yet returned to 0?
Definition
raises their Cmax (need to watch out for toxicity)
Term
half life is a measurement of what?
Definition
elimination of a drug
Term
what affects molecular elimination of a drug?
Definition
metabolism
Term
where does metabolism of a drug occur?
Definition
mostly by enzymes in the liver
Term
what does metabolism do to a drug?
Definition
change the drug molecule (breaks it down and adds oxygen, hydrogen, and glucose-like molecules)
Term
why does changing the molecule affect its drug actions?
Definition
if the molecule is changed, it may no longer fit with the receptor, making it inactive. Or it can be changed but still work
Term
what do we call metabolized drugs?
Definition
metabolites
Term
metabolites have increased water solubility, which causes what?
Definition
increased elimination by the kidney (renal filtration and urine excretion increased)
Term
what are the possible outcomes for a metabolite?
Definition
1. becomes active or inactive (either way increases water solubility), 2. goes to blood for elimination by kidney or recirculation, 3. goes to bile then liver then GI tract and can possibly return to body
Term
what might affect a person's metabolism?
Definition
age, renal function (serum creatinine - as creatinine increases, filtration decreases), body size, diabetes, other diseases
Term
what happens to serum concentration if we give regular doses?
Definition
we get constant peaks and troughs of serum concentration
Term
what is steady state?
Definition
when time between peaks or troughs is constant
Term
what factors can make a difference in individual responses to drugs? (ie why would one person achieve full range of motion with 100mg ibuprofen while another achieves full range of motion at 400mg?)
Definition
1. drug interaction: could be taking a 2nd drug that antagonizes ibuprofen (can overcome this by increasing dose of ibuprofen), 2. First Pass: liver may metabolize more ibuprofen because there are more active sites/enzymes in liver cells, 3. there may be oral absorption differences in the two patients (take the drug by iv to reduce this effect), 4. characteristics such as age, volume, activity level
Term
in a blood/serum concentration vs. time after does graph, what do we call the increase in concentration side of the curve?
Definition
absorption phase
Term
in the graph, what do we call the decrease in blood concentration?
Definition
elimination phase
Term
what do we call the time between absoprtion phase and elimination phase?
Definition
distribution phase
Term
what is done to turn a blood concentration specimen into serum fluid?
Definition
clot red blood cells
Term
what do we call the highest concentration on the serum conc vs. time after does graph?
Definition
Cmax
Term
which will be higher, Cmax for IV drugs or Cmax for oral drugs?
Definition
IV
Term
what other changes do we see in a conc vs. time graph for IV instead of PO?
Definition
With IV, absorption phase is faster and curve goes higher. Elimination phase looks the same whether drug is given PO or IV
Term
what is the time at which Cmax happens?
Definition
Tmax
Term
how is Tmax different for IV from PO?
Definition
Tmax is faster for IV than for PO
Term
why is Cmax for PO lower than Cmax for IV
Definition
loss of drug to liver with PO (first pass.) all oral drugs pass through liver first, but only some IV drugs pass through liver
Term
comparing IV to PO concentration shows us what?
Definition
measurement of absorption/bioavailability for PO
Term
how do we calculate bioavailability for a drug PO?
Definition
assume bioavailability for IV drug si 100% bc it is injected into bloodstream. Bioavailability = (area under curve for PO)/(area under curve for IV)
Term
what does a PO bioavailability of 10-20% mean?
Definition
this bioavailability is too low and drug will not be given PO
Term
what kind of information can we get from the measurement of the rate of elimination?
Definition
drug's half life
Term
what is a drug's half life?
Definition
the time it takes the drug concentration to decrease by half
Term
does a drug have the same half life in all people?
Definition
no, different people have different half lives for the same drug
Term
what happens if we give a 2nd dose to someone whose serum concentration has not yet returned to 0?
Definition
raises their Cmax (need to watch out for toxicity)
Term
half life is a measurement of what?
Definition
elimination of a drug
Term
what affects molecular elimination of a drug?
Definition
metabolism
Term
where does metabolism of a drug occur?
Definition
mostly by enzymes in the liver
Term
what does metabolism do to a drug?
Definition
change the drug molecule (breaks it down and adds oxygen, hydrogen, and glucose-like molecules)
Term
why does changing the molecule affect its drug actions?
Definition
if the molecule is changed, it may no longer fit with the receptor, making it inactive. Or it can be changed but still work
Term
what do we call metabolized drugs?
Definition
metabolites
Term
metabolites have increased water solubility, which causes what?
Definition
increased elimination by the kidney (renal filtration and urine excretion increased)
Term
what are the possible outcomes for a metabolite?
Definition
1. becomes active or inactive (either way increases water solubility), 2. goes to blood for elimination by kidney or recirculation, 3. goes to bile then liver then GI tract and can possibly return to body
Term
what might affect a person's metabolism?
Definition
age, renal function (serum creatinine - as creatinine increases, filtration decreases), body size, diabetes, other diseases
Term
what happens to serum concentration if we give regular doses?
Definition
we get constant peaks and troughs of serum concentration
Term
what is steady state?
Definition
when time between peaks or troughs is constant
Term
how are immune cells, tissues, and organs like the police/army to prtoect the body from invasion?
Definition
1. patrol to detect invasion, 2. recruit and activate immune cells when invasion is detected, 3. destroy the foreign material
Term
what is an antigen?
Definition
foreign material/non-self
Term
what is a pathogen?
Definition
antigens which cause disease
Term
what are the 2 major subtypes of chornic inflammation?
Definition
humoral immune response, cell mediated immune response
Term
what cells are involved in the 3rd line of defense/chronic inflammation?
Definition
lymphocytes, plasma cells, macrophages, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils
Term
what are the steps of pathogenesis for chornic inflammation?
Definition
lymphocytes, macrophages release mediators to recruit more cells, activate cells, and destroy etiology
Term
how do our immune cells distinguish between self and nonself cells?
Definition
self cells all have the same membrane proteins/id tags
Term
what are the two types of self membrane proteins/id tags?
Definition
major histocompatability complex and human leukocyte antigen
Term
what is the job of macrophages in chronic inflammation
Definition
coordinator = first one there, lets everyone else know to come here; phagocytic = can kill cells
Term
what types of B lymphocytes do we have?
Definition
B memory cells for patrolling and plasma cells to make antibodies
Term
once a B lymphocyte is activated, what are its two choices?
Definition
1. continue looking like B lymphoctes and leave site to return to patrolling, 2. change appearance and bceome plasma cells that make antibodies to destroy specific antigens
Term
What are the 3 types of T lymphocytes?
Definition
T memory = patrols, can recognize 1 antigen; T helper = coordinator that releases cytokines (also called CD4); T cytotixic = destroys cells (also called CD8)
Term
what type of antigen causes a humoral-meidated immune response?
Definition
microorganisms, especially bacteria and viruses
Term
what cells are involved in humarl-mediated immune responses?
Definition
T helper lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, lasma cells
Term
what are the steps of humoral-mediated immune response?
Definition
1. B lymphocyte detects antigen, 2. B lymphocyte sends out cytocines to recruit T Helper, 3. T Helpber sends out cytokines to recruit B lymphocytes and to encourage intital B lymphocyte to undergo mitosis, 3. B lymphocyte turns into plasma B cells, 4. plasma B cells make antibodies, 5. antiobodies tag antigen for destruction
Term
how does the B lymphocte detect an antigen?
Definition
it has an antibody that is used as a "feeler" to find antigen
Term
what is used to tag the antigen for destruction?
Definition
antibody = immunoglobulin
Term
what are the 3 types of immunoglobulin that we need to know?
Definition
IgM = 1st type produced, disappears; IgG = 2nd type produced, remains for years as immunity to antigen (kind of antibody vaccines are designed to produce); IgE used in Type 1 hypersensitivity
Term
which cells are involved in cell-mediated immune response?
Definition
T Hleper lymphocytes, macrophages, T cytotixic lymphocytes
Term
what are the antigens of cell mediated immune response
Definition
cells (viruses in our cells, cancer cells, transplanted cells, non-degradable cells)
Term
what are the steps of cell-mediated immune responses?
Definition
1. T cytotixic of macrophage identifies antigen cell, 2. T cytotoxic sends out cytockines to recruit T helpers, 3. T helpers send out cytokines to recruit macrphages and T cytotoxic, 4. T cytotoxics and macrophages kill antigen cell
Term
how is the antigen destroyed in cell mediated immunity?
Definition
T cytotoxics or macrophages form hole in antigen cell membrane causing water to rush in and cell dies OR T cytotoxics and macrophages trigger apoptosis so antigen cell kills itself
Term
what is Type I humoral immunity?
Definition
hypersensitivity = allergies
Term
describe Type 2 hypersensitivity
Definition
a humoral immunity I which an antigen is on a cell's surface, an antibody (IgG) binds and tags cell, a complement recognizes the tag/antigen, the complement kills cell by poking holes in cell, or nothing kills cell and the antigne sits there blocking the cell's function
Term
what is another name for Type 1 Hypersensitivity?
Definition
immediate/allergic
Term
What is another name for Type 2 Hypersensitivity?
Definition
Cytotixic reactions to Ag
Term
What is another name for Type III Hypersensitivity?
Definition
immune complex disaease
Term
What are some diseases caused by Type I hypersensitivity
Definition
allergies, hayfever, asthma, anaphylaxis
Term
what are some diseases caused by Type II hypersensitivity
Definition
myesthenia gravis, transfusion reaction, graft rejection, kill tumors
Term
describe what is happening in myesthenia gravis
Definition
an antibody sits on an antigen on a cell and blocks function (muscle cell cant contract)
Term
describe type 3 hypersensitivity
Definition
a humoral immunity in which antigens and antibodies in the blood get stuck together, causing an acute inflammation response which kills the neighborhood and makes people sick
Term
what diseases are caused by type 3 hypersensitivity?
Definition
lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, glomerulonephritis
Term
what is another name of type 4 hypersensitivity?
Definition
delayed = cell-mediated immunity
Term
what dieseases are caused by cell mediated immunity?
Definition
contact dermatitis, TB test, graft rejection, kill tumors
Term
what are normal and healthy immune responses?
Definition
acute inflammation, chronic inflammation
Term
how do normal and healthy immune responses make us sick?
Definition
mediators, cytokines, damage to neighborhood
Term
what are the two types of immunodeficiency diseases?
Definition
congenital and acquired
Term
what are the 3 types of congenital immunodeficiency diseases
Definition
B cell, T cell, combined B and T cell
Term
what is a B cell immunodeficiency disease?
Definition
born with no B cells; can't make antibodies; compromises humoral immunity
Term
what is a T cell immunodeficiency disease?
Definition
born with no T cells; compromises humoral AND cell mediated immunity; will get many viral infections and cancers
Term
ddescrbe combined B and T cell immunodeficiency disease
Definition
born with no B and T cells; must live in a bubble that is a completely sterile environment
Term
what is an acquired immunodeficiency dieases
Definition
AIDS; infects macrophages and T helpbers; compromises humoral and cell-mediated immunity
Term
what are 3 drugs that cause acquired immunosuppression?
Definition
steroids, chemotherapy, anti-rejection drugs
Term
describe increased immune responses
Definition
hypersensitivity diseases (allergic diseases, etc.), hummoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity, causes allergies and autoimmune diseases
Term
describe misdirected immune responses
Definition
autoimmune diseases; antigen is our self; immune responses to our own body
Term
what are some examples of immune neoplasms
Definition
cancer, lymphoma, leukemia
Term
definition of immunocompromised
Definition
having an immune system that has been impaired or weakened by disease or treatement
Term
define immunosuppressed
Definition
intended or unintended suppressino of the immune rsponse, as by drugs or radiation
Term
definie immunodeficiency
Definition
state in which the immune system's ability to fight infections is compromised or entirely absent
Term
what is an anti-nuclear antibody?
Definition
an antibody made for nuclear proteins that are antigens; we make these to use when cells die and their interior cell contents are distributed
Term
how are immune cells, tissues, and organs like the police/army to prtoect the body from invasion?
Definition
1. patrol to detect invasion, 2. recruit and activate immune cells when invasion is detected, 3. destroy the foreign material
Term
what is an antigen?
Definition
foreign material/non-self
Term
what is a pathogen?
Definition
antigens which cause disease
Term
what are the 2 major subtypes of chornic inflammation?
Definition
humoral immune response, cell mediated immune response
Term
what cells are involved in the 3rd line of defense/chronic inflammation?
Definition
lymphocytes, plasma cells, macrophages, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils
Term
what are the steps of pathogenesis for chornic inflammation?
Definition
lymphocytes, macrophages release mediators to recruit more cells, activate cells, and destroy etiology
Term
how do our immune cells distinguish between self and nonself cells?
Definition
self cells all have the same membrane proteins/id tags
Term
what are the two types of self membrane proteins/id tags?
Definition
major histocompatability complex and human leukocyte antigen
Term
what is the job of macrophages in chronic inflammation
Definition
coordinator = first one there, lets everyone else know to come here; phagocytic = can kill cells
Term
what types of B lymphocytes do we have?
Definition
B memory cells for patrolling and plasma cells to make antibodies
Term
once a B lymphocyte is activated, what are its two choices?
Definition
1. continue looking like B lymphoctes and leave site to return to patrolling, 2. change appearance and bceome plasma cells that make antibodies to destroy specific antigens
Term
What are the 3 types of T lymphocytes?
Definition
T memory = patrols, can recognize 1 antigen; T helper = coordinator that releases cytokines (also called CD4); T cytotixic = destroys cells (also called CD8)
Term
what type of antigen causes a humoral-meidated immune response?
Definition
microorganisms, especially bacteria and viruses
Term
what cells are involved in humarl-mediated immune responses?
Definition
T helper lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, lasma cells
Term
what are the steps of humoral-mediated immune response?
Definition
1. B lymphocyte detects antigen, 2. B lymphocyte sends out cytocines to recruit T Helper, 3. T Helpber sends out cytokines to recruit B lymphocytes and to encourage intital B lymphocyte to undergo mitosis, 3. B lymphocyte turns into plasma B cells, 4. plasma B cells make antibodies, 5. antiobodies tag antigen for destruction
Term
how does the B lymphocte detect an antigen?
Definition
it has an antibody that is used as a "feeler" to find antigen
Term
what is used to tag the antigen for destruction?
Definition
antibody = immunoglobulin
Term
what are the 3 types of immunoglobulin that we need to know?
Definition
IgM = 1st type produced, disappears; IgG = 2nd type produced, remains for years as immunity to antigen (kind of antibody vaccines are designed to produce); IgE used in Type 1 hypersensitivity
Term
which cells are involved in cell-mediated immune response?
Definition
T Hleper lymphocytes, macrophages, T cytotixic lymphocytes
Term
what are the antigens of cell mediated immune response
Definition
cells (viruses in our cells, cancer cells, transplanted cells, non-degradable cells)
Term
what are the steps of cell-mediated immune responses?
Definition
1. T cytotixic of macrophage identifies antigen cell, 2. T cytotoxic sends out cytockines to recruit T helpers, 3. T helpers send out cytokines to recruit macrphages and T cytotoxic, 4. T cytotoxics and macrophages kill antigen cell
Term
how is the antigen destroyed in cell mediated immunity?
Definition
T cytotoxics or macrophages form hole in antigen cell membrane causing water to rush in and cell dies OR T cytotoxics and macrophages trigger apoptosis so antigen cell kills itself
Term
what is Type I humoral immunity?
Definition
hypersensitivity = allergies
Term
describe Type 2 hypersensitivity
Definition
a humoral immunity I which an antigen is on a cell's surface, an antibody (IgG) binds and tags cell, a complement recognizes the tag/antigen, the complement kills cell by poking holes in cell, or nothing kills cell and the antigne sits there blocking the cell's function
Term
what is another name for Type 1 Hypersensitivity?
Definition
immediate/allergic
Term
What is another name for Type 2 Hypersensitivity?
Definition
Cytotixic reactions to Ag
Term
What is another name for Type III Hypersensitivity?
Definition
immune complex disaease
Term
What are some diseases caused by Type I hypersensitivity
Definition
allergies, hayfever, asthma, anaphylaxis
Term
what are some diseases caused by Type II hypersensitivity
Definition
myesthenia gravis, transfusion reaction, graft rejection, kill tumors
Term
describe what is happening in myesthenia gravis
Definition
an antibody sits on an antigen on a cell and blocks function (muscle cell cant contract)
Term
describe type 3 hypersensitivity
Definition
a humoral immunity in which antigens and antibodies in the blood get stuck together, causing an acute inflammation response which kills the neighborhood and makes people sick
Term
what diseases are caused by type 3 hypersensitivity?
Definition
lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, glomerulonephritis
Term
what is another name of type 4 hypersensitivity?
Definition
delayed = cell-mediated immunity
Term
what dieseases are caused by cell mediated immunity?
Definition
contact dermatitis, TB test, graft rejection, kill tumors
Term
what are normal and healthy immune responses?
Definition
acute inflammation, chronic inflammation
Term
how do normal and healthy immune responses make us sick?
Definition
mediators, cytokines, damage to neighborhood
Term
what are the two types of immunodeficiency diseases?
Definition
congenital and acquired
Term
what are the 3 types of congenital immunodeficiency diseases
Definition
B cell, T cell, combined B and T cell
Term
what is a B cell immunodeficiency disease?
Definition
born with no B cells; can't make antibodies; compromises humoral immunity
Term
what is a T cell immunodeficiency disease?
Definition
born with no T cells; compromises humoral AND cell mediated immunity; will get many viral infections and cancers
Term
ddescrbe combined B and T cell immunodeficiency disease
Definition
born with no B and T cells; must live in a bubble that is a completely sterile environment
Term
what is an acquired immunodeficiency dieases
Definition
AIDS; infects macrophages and T helpbers; compromises humoral and cell-mediated immunity
Term
what are 3 drugs that cause acquired immunosuppression?
Definition
steroids, chemotherapy, anti-rejection drugs
Term
describe increased immune responses
Definition
hypersensitivity diseases (allergic diseases, etc.), hummoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity, causes allergies and autoimmune diseases
Term
describe misdirected immune responses
Definition
autoimmune diseases; antigen is our self; immune responses to our own body
Term
what are some examples of immune neoplasms
Definition
cancer, lymphoma, leukemia
Term
definition of immunocompromised
Definition
having an immune system that has been impaired or weakened by disease or treatement
Term
define immunosuppressed
Definition
intended or unintended suppressino of the immune rsponse, as by drugs or radiation
Term
definie immunodeficiency
Definition
state in which the immune system's ability to fight infections is compromised or entirely absent
Term
what is an anti-nuclear antibody?
Definition
an antibody made for nuclear proteins that are antigens; we make these to use when cells die and their interior cell contents are distributed
Term
define repair/healing
Definition
replacement of dead/necrotic cells with viable ones; restoration of tissue architecture and function after an injury
Term
what are the 3 options of repair?
Definition
regeneration, scar (fibrosis), regeneration AND scar
Term
G1 cell cycle?
Definition
cell growth and function
Term
S cell cycle?
Definition
DNA synthesis and replication to prepare for mitosis
Term
G2 cell cycle?
Definition
cell growth preparing for mitosis
Term
M cell cycle?
Definition
mitosis/cell division
Term
Go cell cycle
Definition
exit cycle when not dividing
Term
what are the 3 categories of proliferative capacities of cells based on mitotic capacity?
Definition
labile, stable, permanent
Term
describe labile cells
Definition
cells which normally continuously divide, meaning they regularly undergo mitosis and continuously moe through cell cycle (don't go to Go)
Term
what type of repair would result from labile cells?
Definition
regeneration and return of function
Term
how do new cells arise?
Definition
by mitosis from mature cells or from stem cells
Term
what are stem cells?
Definition
immature/undifferentiated cells with large mitotic/proliferative capacity
Term
what are embryonic stem cells?
Definition
from early embryo; have capacity to grow into many different cell types
Term
what are adult stem cells?
Definition
from adults; have capacity to grow into fewer different cell types
Term
what are examples of labile cells?
Definition
epithelium = cells that cover surfaces/line cells like skin, GI lining, respiratory;genital/vascular/urinary TUBES, blood cells
Term
describe stable cells
Definition
cell type that do not normally undergo mitosis but can if injured; spend most of their time in Go phase of cell cycle but can return to cycle if told to do so
Term
what is the type of repair of stable cells?
Definition
regeneration AND scar
Term
what are examples of stable cells?
Definition
bone, cartilage, liver cells, solid structures
Term
describe permanent cells
Definition
cell types with poor mitotic capabilities even after injury, spend their lives in Go and very reluctant to leave
Term
what type of repair results from permanent cells?
Definition
scar
Term
what are some examples of permanent cells?
Definition
cardiac muscle (heart attack), neurons/nervous system (stroke, alzheimer's), skeletal muscle sometimes
Term
what types of etiologies lead to necrosis?
Definition
any etiologies from day 1, including trauma, decreased oxygen, inflammatio
Term
what is the pathogenesis of repair
Definition
regeneration and/or scar
Term
most of our cells are which type of cells?
Definition
stable
Term
what is the outcome when cells regenerate and replace following necrosis?
Definition
return of function
Term
what types of cells lead to regeneration?
Definition
labile and stable
Term
what types of cells lead to scars?
Definition
stable and permanent
Term
how is a scar made?
Definition
necrotic cells are replaced with connective tissue
Term
what is connective tissue composed of?
Definition
cells and extracellular matrix
Term
what type of cells are found in connective tissue and what do those cells do?
Definition
fibroblasts, make extracellular matrix
Term
what kind of fibers are in the extrcellular matrix?
Definition
collagen fibers for strength
Term
what are the steps of the body response in scarring?
Definition
macrophage comes in to eat dead (necrotic) cells; granulation tissue forms new blood cells (neovascularization/angiogenesis); fibroblasts make extracellular matrix/collagen; collagen and fibroblasts line up to be stronger
Term
what color is a scar 3-5 days after it is formed?
Definition
pink because of vascularization
Term
what color is a scar weeks after it is formed?
Definition
white
Term
describe growth factors
Definition
cehmical mediator that causes a cell to enter cell cycle of mitosis and also increases survival of new cells by decreasing apoptosis. Secreted by many cell types, inluding macrophages
Term
what is the function of epidermal growth factor?
Definition
mitosis of fibroblasts and skin cells (keratinocytes_
Term
what is the function of fibroblast growth factor?
Definition
mitosis of fibroblasts and skin cells (keratinocytes), angiogenesis, scar remodeling
Term
what is the function of transforming growth factor
Definition
mitosis of many cell types, angiogenesis
Term
what is the functio of vascular endothelial growth factor?
Definition
mitosos of endothelial cells (blood vessel cells) for angiogenesis
Term
what is healing by first intention
Definition
healing of a clean, curgical incision closed with sutures
Term
what is happening in a 1st intention wound in less than 24 hours?
Definition
necrosis, acute inflammation
Term
what is happening in a 1st intention wound in 1-3 days?
Definition
repair, reapithelialization, macrophages and phagocytes enter
Term
hwat is happening in a 1st intention wound in 3-7 days?
Definition
formation of granulation tissue
Term
how strong is a 1st intention wound in less than 24 hours (has sutures)?
Definition
70.00000%
Term
how strong is a 1st intention wound after sutures are removed
Definition
10.00000%
Term
how strong will a 1st intention wound become after healing
Definition
80.00000%
Term
what happens weeks to months after a 1st intention wound?
Definition
epidermis is regenerated, dermis is scarred, as a remodeled, organized scar
Term
what is healing by 2nd intention?
Definition
healing of a larger, necrotic wound without sutures
Term
how does healing by 2nd intention differ from healing by 1st intention?
Definition
larger wound leads to longer repair time; re-epithelializtion is less succesful leading ot larer scar
Term
what is a pathologic aspect of repair?
Definition
keloid = excessive scar tissue formation
Term
what is an infectious disease?
Definition
disease caused by a specific pathogenic microorganism tha tmay be capable of being transmitted to another individual through direct or indirect contact
Term
example of infectious disease that can be transmitted
Definition
cold, flu
Term
example of infectious disease that cannot be transmitted human to human
Definition
rocky mountain spotted fever
Term
what is a community acquired fectious disease?
Definition
an ID acquired in a community not related to medical profession
Term
iatrogenic
Definition
ID induced by a physician's words or therapy such as a catheter, IV, surgery (infection)
Term
nosocomial
Definition
ID acquired in the hospital such as by wound infections, pneumonia, etc., not from procedures, more individual such as from a sneeze or poor handwashing
Term
what are prions
Definition
non-living protein (mad cow disease)
Term
what is the major cause of infectious disease
Definition
viruses
Term
what is the second most common cause of infectious disease?
Definition
bacteria
Term
example of fungi
Definition
candida
Term
examples of protozoa
Definition
giardia, amoeba
Term
what are potential reservoirs of ID
Definition
non-animal vectors such as plants, food, soil, water; animal ,vectors such as insects, mammals; humans such as in secreations (blood, tears, semen) or excretions (urine, feces)
Term
how are IDs transmitted to us?
Definition
indirect contact through a non-human vector; direct contact human to human
Term
what are portals of entry for an ID into a human
Definition
airborne/inhalation, enteric = fecal/oral; sexual (membrane lesions); skin (bites, lesions)
Term
how does it help to understand the transmission events for an organism?
Definition
to devise prevention methods
Term
what is the most important prevention of person to person infectious diseases?
Definition
hand washing
Term
what is a vaccination?
Definition
injection of pieces of the organismi that cause the body to create protective IgG and memory cells so that chronic inflammation will occur quickly at next exposure
Term
what is the path of infections?
Definition
enter through a barrier, cause localized leasion, multiply and spread locally OR enter blood to become widely disseminated
Term
what is the incubation period of an infectious disease?
Definition
time when organism has entered and is multiplying before we're aware that we're infected = happens during pathogenesis
Term
what are the pathogenic responses to infectiuos disease?
Definition
necrosis, acute inflammation, chronic inflammation, neoplasms
Term
when is an infectious disease transmitted?
Definition
during pathogenesis or signs/symptoms (before or during the time that symptoms are present)
Term
when is a clinical disease present
Definition
during signs/symptoms when the disease can be recognzied
Term
what are the outcomes of an infectious disease
Definition
recovery, complications, death
Term
how does ID cause cell and tissue injury?
Definition
direct injury of cells by microorganism, indirect injury by toxins produced by microorganism, trigger host response (inflammation)
Term
how many viruses cause humanillness?
Definition
400+
Term
what are viruses composed of?
Definition
a few proteins + DNA or RNA
Term
describe viruses
Definition
must live in host cell; each virus can infect only one or a few cell types; patrolling cells discvoer virus because virus puts viral proteins on cell membranes
Term
what is the body response to viral infections
Definition
humarol, cellular chronic inflammation to kill our infected cells
Term
superficial fungal infections
Definition
low morbidity, ie tinea (ringworm, athlete's foot), candida (oral cavity, vagina)
Term
deep fungal infection
Definition
higher morbidity and mortality. More common in immunocompromised
Term
what are bacteria
Definition
single celled microoganisms, mostly extracellular
Term
types of bacteria
Definition
staphylococcus, streptococus
Term
where do bacteria infect?
Definition
skin, oral cavity
Term
what types of bacteria live in our bodies normally but make us sick if they go to the wrong place in our bodies?
Definition
E. coli (GI tract), mycobacteria (TB family - lives in our cells)
Term
what are exotoxins
Definition
toxins secreted by the bacteria (cholera, salmonella)
Term
what are endotoxins?
Definition
part of the bacteria cell wall that triggers many inflammation signals
Term
what is the body's response to bacterial infections?
Definition
acute inflammation or humoral chronic inflammation (to make antibodies to the bacteria)
Term
what are antibiotics
Definition
antibacterial drugs that are effetive in killing or limitng growth of pathogenic bacteria
Term
what are important properties of antibacterial drugs?
Definition
broad specturem that is effective against many different bacterai vs. specific/selective that is effectie against only one or a few types of bacteria; bactericidal that kills bacteria vs. bacteriostatic that limits the growth and proliferation of bacteria
Term
what are the 3 basic mechanisms of antibacterial drug action?
Definition
1. inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis and function (bactericidal); 2. inhibition of bacterial protein synthesis (bactericidal and bacteriostatic); 3. inhibition of bacterial DNA/RNA function (bactericidal and bacteriostatic)
Term
examples of bacterial cell wall inhibiting antibiotics
Definition
penicillin, cephalosporins, polymyxin B
Term
eamples of bacterial protein synthesis inhibiting antibiotics
Definition
aminoglycosides, tetracycline, erythromycin
Term
how do bacteria become resistant to an antibacterial drug?
Definition
evolving
Term
a given bacteria may develop what?
Definition
single or multidrug resistance
Term
mechanisms used in antibiotic resistance?
Definition
bacteria develop ways to destroy the antibiotic, bacteria modify or mask site where antibitic binds to it, bacteria develop ways to keep drug out of its interior
Term
MRSA
Definition
multidrug resistant staph aureus can kill a healthy person quickly
Term
antibiotic adverse effects
Definition
common = rash, UV hypersensitivity, GI complaints
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