Term
|
Definition
| inadequate oxygen at the level of the tissue |
|
|
Term
| what are the components that determine blood oxygen levels |
|
Definition
| saturation of heme, ammount of heme, oxygen dissolved in plasma / partial pressure of oxygen |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| decreased blood flow to and from a tissue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| decreased oxygen in plasma / partial pressure of oxygen |
|
|
Term
| what are sources of cell stress (10) |
|
Definition
hypoxia
ischemia
hypoxemia
chemical agents
physical agents
infectious agents
immunologic agents
genetic defects
nutritional imbalances
aging |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
metabolism redox reactions
incomplete reduction of oxygen in ETC
absorption of radiant injury
enzyme metabolism of exogenous chemicals (CCl4)
inflammation via leukocytes
release from NO
free transition metals |
|
|
Term
| what can ROS do to cells / what can happen to ROS once created(7) |
|
Definition
degraded or removed by cell defence
autocatlytic reactions to make more ROS
attack lipids --> dysrupt membrane
degrade nucleic acids
protein misfolding and cross linking |
|
|
Term
| what can happen if nucleic acids are degraded (4) |
|
Definition
mutated DNA
silencing genes
signaling of apoptosis
protein mis/inactivity |
|
|
Term
| what are ways cell stressors can degrade nucleic acids (4) |
|
Definition
oxidative stress
toxins
ionizing radiation
increased Ca turning on nucleases |
|
|
Term
| what are the consequences of protein misfolding or cross linking (3) |
|
Definition
protein degradation
protein mis/inactivity
impaired protein degredation / build up
proteins tagged with ubiquitin and targeted for degration, if too many build up like this it gets clogged and proteins cannot be removed |
|
|
Term
| what sources of cell injury can cause protein misfolding / cross linking (2) |
|
Definition
ROS
decrease in active transport (due to decreased ATP) |
|
|
Term
| what sources of cell injury can cause plasma membrane damage (3) |
|
Definition
microbe or other toxins
ischemia
lytic complements |
|
|
Term
| what can plasma membrane damage cause to happen in a cell |
|
Definition
decrease cell contents and ions
decrease metabolites and thus ATP
damage the lysosome (degrading enzymes leak into cytoplasm)
increase intracellular Ca (turn on enzymes that we dont want on) |
|
|
Term
| what can cause mitochondrial damage (2) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are the results of mitochondrial damage in the cell (2) |
|
Definition
decreased ATP synthesis
leaking of cytochrome C -> apoptosis |
|
|
Term
| what are the causes of decreased ATP synthesis due to damage (4) |
|
Definition
mitochondrial damage (Ca increase, ROS)
decreased oxygen
decrease in metabolites (due to membrane damage) |
|
|
Term
| what are the results of decreased ATP synthesis in the cell (3) |
|
Definition
misfolded proteins
decreased metabolic pathways needing energy
decrease in active transport |
|
|
Term
| what are the results of proteins not being folded due to no ATP (2) |
|
Definition
go into cytosol and be useless
accumulate in ER and make it swell signaling apoptosis |
|
|
Term
| when active transport is decreased in a cell, due to no ATP, what are the results (5) |
|
Definition
increase in intracellular Na -> swelling
protein misfolding and cross linking
increase in Ca -> bad enzymes turn on
ribosome detachement -> no proteins made
no ETC -> anaerobic glycolysis -> lactic acid -> decreased pH -> decreased enzyme function |
|
|
Term
| what damagers can cause an increase in cellular Ca (3) |
|
Definition
plasma membrane damage
cyanide kicks it out of cellular reserves
decreased active transport makes it stuck in cell (due to no ATP) |
|
|
Term
| what does cyanide do to the cell (2) |
|
Definition
cause Ca to leak from reserves -> not wanted enzymes turn on
causes cytochrome C release from mitochondria -> apoptosis |
|
|
Term
| CO poisoning: what does it do to the tissue, what is the MOA |
|
Definition
hypoxia
CO fills up heme decreasing oxygen saturation |
|
|
Term
| anemia: what does it do to the tissue, what is the MOA |
|
Definition
hypoxia
heme is dysfunctional so heme levels are decreased and oxygen cannot get to tissue |
|
|
Term
| what are issues that would cause hypoxemia |
|
Definition
decreased alveoli function
change in avilable oxygen: altitude, drowning |
|
|
Term
| what are the causes of hypoxia |
|
Definition
decreased saturation of heme
decreased heme
ischemia
hypoxemia |
|
|
Term
| define reperfusion injury |
|
Definition
| after ischemia, when blood is restored, there is more cell death and neutrophils come despite lack of infection |
|
|
Term
| why is hydrogen peroxida dangerous |
|
Definition
forms free radicals with Fe catalyzed reactions (fenton reactions)
diffuses easily |
|
|
Term
| how is hydrogen peroxide naturally broken down |
|
Definition
| catalase turns it into water and oxygen |
|
|
Term
| how does superoxide anion form, why is it dangerous |
|
Definition
forms from leaks in ETC
helps make other ROS, does not diffuse |
|
|
Term
| how is superoxide anion naturally broken down |
|
Definition
| superoxide dismutase breaks it into hydrogen peroxide then catalase turns it into water and oxygen |
|
|
Term
| how are hydroxyl radicals made, why are they scary |
|
Definition
comes from peroxide iron reaction (fenton rxn)
attacks macromolecules: membrane and protein damage |
|
|
Term
| how are hydroxyl radicals naturally broken down |
|
Definition
| glutathione peroxidase breaks it into hydrogen peroxide, catalyse breaks peroxide into water and oxygen |
|
|
Term
| what does cellular response to stress depend on (4) |
|
Definition
the injury: type, duration, severty
cell type: energy stores, enzymes in cell
cell status: is this a good time for the cell to take on stress
cell adaptability: different cells can metabolize different toxins |
|
|
Term
| hypertrophy: definition, what types of cells is it in, what situations |
|
Definition
increase in cell size
occurs in cells unable to divide
physiologic and pathologic |
|
|
Term
| hyperplasia: definition, what cells is it in, what situations |
|
Definition
increase in cell number
occurs in cells with mitotic potential
physiologic, pathologic, and compensatory |
|
|
Term
| give an example of the common occurance of hypertrophy and hyperplasia occuring together |
|
Definition
| gravid cells in pregnacy become both and take time to return to normal |
|
|
Term
| give an example of physiologic hyperplasia |
|
Definition
| endometrium, breast tissue in pregnacy |
|
|
Term
| why is pathologic hyperplasia usually milignant |
|
Definition
| every time DNA divides there is a chance for mutation. more cells means more divisions |
|
|
Term
| give an example of pathologic benign hyperplasia, is this common |
|
Definition
it is more common for hyperplasia to be milignant
benign prostatic hyperplasia |
|
|
Term
| explain compensatory hyperplasia |
|
Definition
| removal of tissue triggers increase in cells in remaining tissue, not recessairly to replace the removed part but in general in the tissue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| reduction in cell size and decrease in tissue size |
|
|
Term
| what are the results of atrophy (5) |
|
Definition
diminished function/decreased workload
loss of innervation
diminshed blood supply
inadequate nutrition
decreased hormonal stimulation |
|
|
Term
| give some ways atrophy is caused (3) |
|
Definition
decreased protein synthesis
increased proteasomal degradation
autophagy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| broken organells are put in vacolues, digested, and exocytosed |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| repalcing one cell type with another that can handle the stress via changes in gene expression. reversible when stimuli removed |
|
|
Term
| give an example of metaplasia, how does it affect the tissue |
|
Definition
smoker: bronchial tissue changed from columnar to squamous
increased protection to smoke, toxins, and abrasions
decreased protection to illness due to decreased mucous and cillia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| undifferentiated cells are reprogrammed to grow up into new tissue, old differentiated cells stay the same and are over time replaced |
|
|
Term
| what are the results of metaplasia (3) |
|
Definition
loss of origional function of tissue
loss of protective mechanisms
predisposition of milignancy (lots of cell division, lots of DNA division --> mutations) |
|
|
Term
| list a bunch of reversable cell injuries (9) |
|
Definition
clumping of chromatin
lipid vacolues in cytoplasm (mostly in cells of fat catabolism)
mitochondrial calcification
aggregrated cytoskeleton
protein accumulations
cellular swelling/bleb
ribosomal detachment
mitochondrial swelling
ER swelling |
|
|
Term
| why would proteins accumulate in a stressed cell |
|
Definition
| ATP stops pumps and anaerobic glycolysis kicks in causing acidity, enzymes stop working, ROS made |
|
|
Term
| why do cells swell when stressed |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are some irreversible cell injuries |
|
Definition
necrosis
nuclear changes
protein digestion
activation of lysosomal enzymes |
|
|
Term
| fatty accumulations: where, asociated with |
|
Definition
liver, heart, skeletal muscle, kidney
alcohol abuse, obseity, toxins, protein malnutrition, diabetes mellidus |
|
|
Term
| how do fatty accumulations come about, 3 ways |
|
Definition
excess TG due to defecits in FA entry lead to export of lipoproteins then FA are oxidated by toxins
increased mobilization of FA during starvation
prolonged hypoxia in the heart > reduced oxidation of fatty acids |
|
|
Term
| explain the morphology of fatty accumulations in parenchymal cells, liver, and heart. what do they stain with |
|
Definition
parenchymal: clear vacuoles. stain waith sudan IV or oil red O
liver: large pale to yellow
heart: focal deposits |
|
|
Term
| cholesterol accumulations: found in, associated with |
|
Definition
in macrophages
atherosclerosis, hyperlipidemia |
|
|
Term
| cholesterol accumulations: MOA |
|
Definition
lipid overload
oxidixed low density lipoproteins targeted by macrophages |
|
|
Term
| cholesterol accumulations morphology (3) |
|
Definition
yellow atherosclerotic plaques
xanthomas: clusters of macrophages in skin and tendons
cholesterol crystals |
|
|
Term
| protein accumulations: location (3), associated conditions (5) |
|
Definition
kidney, liver, brain
nephrotic syndrome (proteins leak into urine)
alpha 1 - antitrupsin deficiency
variety of brain diseases like alzheimers, picks, huntingtons |
|
|
Term
| protein accumulations: MOA (3), and morphology |
|
Definition
excess production
increased delivery
reduced degradation (due to misfolding)
morphology: eosinophillic inclusions |
|
|
Term
| glycogen accumulations: locations (6), associated conditions (2) |
|
Definition
lysosomes, liver, muscle, kidneys, heart, pancreas
glycogen storage diseases, diabetes mellidus |
|
|
Term
| glycogen accumulations: MOA |
|
Definition
| defect in enzymes for converting glycogen to glucose |
|
|
Term
| glycogen accumulations: morphology (4) and staining |
|
Definition
intracytoplasmic accumulation of glycogen: stain with periodic acid schiff (PAS)
hepatomeagealy
renomeaglu
cardiomeagaly |
|
|
Term
| carbon accumulation: location, associated diseases |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| carbon accumulation: MOA, morphology |
|
Definition
phagocytosed carbon
blacened lymph nodes in lung |
|
|
Term
| lipofuscin accumulation: location, associated diseases |
|
Definition
heart, liver, brain
marker of age or atrophy |
|
|
Term
| lipofuschin accumulation: MOA and morphology |
|
Definition
peroxidation of membranes
brownish yellow granules (like ear wax) |
|
|
Term
| hemosidern accumulation: location, associated conditions |
|
Definition
liver, spleen, marrow
vascular congestion, hemosiderosis |
|
|
Term
| hemosidern accumulation: MOA and morphology |
|
Definition
released by RBC breakdown
golden yellow to brown granules |
|
|
Term
| what is the cause of a reprofusion injury, 2 ways |
|
Definition
damaged mitochondria > ROS > antioxidants compormized
antibodies accumulate > complement activated > inflammation and ROS (from leukocytes) made |
|
|
Term
| explain carbon tetrachloride poisoning |
|
Definition
cytochrome P450 turns CCl4 into a free radical in the liver, the free radical causes autocataltic phosphlipid peroxidation which causes two things...
1. er degredation > hepatocytes cannot make apoprotein > TG cannot get out of the liver > fatty liver
2. membrane damege > mito injury > cell death |
|
|
Term
| explain acetaminophen hepatotoxicity MOA |
|
Definition
some is detox in the liver and some is converted by cytochrome P450 into toxic metabolite NAPQI
NAPQI is neutralized by gutathione but if there is too much it cannot keep up |
|
|
Term
| what are the negative results of acetaminophen hepatotoxicity (3) |
|
Definition
covalenly bind DNA and proteins
increase other oxidative damage because glutathione cannot help
liver necrosis in 3-5 days |
|
|
Term
| what are the causes of dystrophic calcifications (3) |
|
Definition
dead or dying dissue
hypercalcemia not needed, but worsens it
cancer/dysfunctional tissue |
|
|
Term
| what are the symptoms of dystrophic calcification (4) |
|
Definition
| atherosclerotic plaques, aortic stenosis, gritty deposits (fine white granules or clumps), basophillic deposits |
|
|
Term
| what is the MOA of dystrophic calcification intracellularly and extracellularly |
|
Definition
extracellular: ca phosphate forms in matrix vesicles
intracellular: initiation occurs in mitochondria due to calcium influx |
|
|
Term
| what are examples of dystrophic calcification |
|
Definition
| it is what we look for in a mammogram |
|
|
Term
| metastic calcification caused by |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what causes hypercalcemia (4) |
|
Definition
increased parathyroid hormone
bone destruction
vitamin D
renal failure |
|
|
Term
| what causes increased PTH (2) |
|
Definition
| paraneoplastic syndrome (PTH like proteins made in tumor), Parathyroid tumor |
|
|
Term
| what causes bone destruction (5) |
|
Definition
| paget diseae (elevated turn over), skeletal metasteses, immobilization, multiple myeloma, leukemia |
|
|
Term
| how does vitamin D cause hypercalcemia (2) |
|
Definition
| intoxication via vit D, sarcidosis |
|
|
Term
| what causes renal failure |
|
Definition
| phosphate retention causes hyperparatyroidism which causes failure |
|
|
Term
| what are the symptoms of a metatastic calcification (7) |
|
Definition
affects vessels, kidneys, lungs, and gastric mucosa
shows on x-ray
can cause respiratory deficits
nephrocalcinosis: deposits that can cause kidney damage |
|
|
Term
| what is metastic calcification morphology |
|
Definition
|
|
